Addiction Flashcards

Question

Process for dopamine reward pathway

Answer 1

1. Individual smokes a cigarette and inhales nicotine. This reaches the bloodstream and activates nACh receptors in the ventral tegmental area (VTA) of the brain in less than 10 seconds. 2. Dopamine is released from the VTA down the mesolimbic pathway to the D2 receptors on the nucleus accumbens (NAc) responsible for the feeling of pleasure, euphoria and relaxation, the individual will have increased alertness and decreased anxiety. 3. When dopamine hits to NAc this triggers the release of more dopamine from the NAc down the mesocortical pathway to the PRE-FRONTAL CORTEX, 4. responsible for what we pay attention to and decision making. 5. The person then decides to smoke again to experience to the same pleasurable feelings and reduced anxiety. 6. Therefore, explaining why people repeatedly smoke and become addicted to nicotine.

Answer 2

1. When a person is smoking, the nACh receptors are constantly desensitized. 2. However, when the person does not smoke for a prolonged period, they become available again 3. If the person is not smoking there is no nicotine to bind to them leading to withdrawal symptoms (anxiety and agitation). 4. The person will then smoke again to avoid these unpleasant withdrawal symptoms.

Answer 3

P- Research to support brain neurochemistry and the role of dopamine was conducted by Mc Evoy. E- They studied smoking behaviour in people with schizophrenia who were taking a drug (Haloperidol). E- This drug is a dopamine antagonist by blocking dopamine receptors - lowering the level of dopamine activity in the brain. It was found that the people taking the drug showed a significant increase in smoking. L- Therefore, supporting the role of dopamine as an explanation of addiction to nicotine, as the patients sought nicotine to increase their level of dopamine in the brain and experience euphoria.

Answer 4

P- However, this research can be criticised for sample bias E- as it uses ppts who have schizophrenia. E- They may not be neurotypical and therefore it is difficult to generalise the findings on low dopamine activity and smoking behaviour to the target population of smokers without schizophrenia. L- Therefore limiting how far this study can be used to support the role of dopamine in smoking.

Answer 5

P- Moreover, Brain neurochemistry as an explanation of nicotine addiction can be criticised for biological reductionism. E- This is because the theory reduces the complex human behaviour of nicotine addiction down to dopamine levels within the brain. E- This neglects a holistic approach, which takes into account how a person’s cultural and social context would influence and explain an individual’s nicotine addiction, for example, adolescents may develop a nicotine addiction due the wanting to fit in with a particular peer group, rather than the feeling of euphoria. L- Therefore, the brain neurochemistry explanation of nicotine addiction may lack validity as it does not allow us to understand the behaviour in context.

Answer 6

Through operant conditioning

Answer 7

Explained by positive reinforcement. The individual is rewarded with the feeling of euphoria when they inhale nicotine, due to its impact on the dopamine system in the brain’s reward pathway. Therefore the person will smoke again to get the same reward of euphoria.

Answer 8

Negative reinforcement can explain why an individual would continue to smoke. Stopping smoking and stopping nicotine release leads to the appearance of withdrawal syndrome having unpleasant symptoms such as disturbed sleep, agitation and poor concentration. Make it difficult for a smoker to abstain for long and therefore an individual would continue to smoke to avoid the unpleasant symptoms (negative reinforcement).

Answer 9

Classical conditioning

Answer 10

1. Pleasurable effect of smoking (nicotine) = primary reinforcer bc of rewarding effect on the dopamine reward system (euphoria)- not learnt. 2. Other stimuli repeatedly present at same time as/ before nicotine (a lighter, certain friends, places, time) over time become associated with this pleasurable feeling= SECONDARY REINFORCERS, bc they take on properties of the primary reinforcer (nicotine), and become rewarding in their own right. 3. Secondary reinforcers also act as CUES, bc their presence produces a similar psychological (craving) and physiological (increased heart rate) REACTION to the nicotine– this is cue reactivity. 4. Reactions make a person want to smoke again (seek primary reinforcement). 5. Can explain why individuals sometimes relapse and/or maintain their addiction to nicotine.

Answer 11

P- Research to support the learning theory of addiction, in particular cue reactivity, was conducted by Carter and Tiffany (1999). E- They conducted a meta-analysis of 41 studies into cue reactivity. They presented depdendent, non-dependent smokers and non-smokers with smoking related cues (e.g. lighters, ashtrays and cigarette packets). Self reported desire (cravings) was measured alongside heart rate (arousal). E- They found that dependent smokers reacted most strongly to the cues for example increased heart rate and reported cravings to smoke. L- This supports cue reactivity as an explanation for smoking behaviour because the dependent smokers had learned secondary associations between smoking related stimuli and the pleasurable effects of smoking

Answer 12

P- However, the learning theory of nicotine addiction is criticised for environmental determinism. E- This is because it states that an individual is controlled by reinforcements and associations that cause behaviour. E- For example, if a person is rewarded for smoking by the feeling of euphoria, they will inevitably smoke again to get the same reward. This neglects the role of free will and choice and an individual has, for example, a person may choose not to continue smoking despite the pleasurable reward, for health reasons. L- The learning theory cannot account for this and therefore may not be a full explanation of smoking behaviour.

Answer 13

P- The learning theory of nicotine addiction has practical applications. E- This is because the principles of the theory, that addiction is caused by pleasant associations (cue reactivity) has led to behavioural interventions such as aversion therapy and covert sensitisation. E- This is effective in treating nicotine addiction by encouraging a patient to re-associate nicotine with negative feelings for example, nausea, rather than a feeling of pleasure. L- Therefore, the learning theory of smoking behaviour is an important part of applied psychology as it helps treat nicotine addiction in the real world.

Answer 14

Learning theory- Partial and variable reinforcement Cognitive theory- Cognitive bias

Answer 15

Using Social Learning Theory

Answer 16

- Can form due to the experience of observing a role model being rewarded for their gambling behaviour (vicarious reinforcement). - The reward could be their enjoyment in gambling, the occasional wins and financial returns they gain. - This observation doesn’t have to be direct it can be through newspapers, magazine or the media. For example, hearing about someone winning big on the lottery could make a person more likely to gamble to gain the same reward.

Answer 17

- Both positive and negative reinforcement can explain a gambling addiction. - Gambling can provide two kinds of positive reinforcements; the reward of winning money and the ‘buzz’ excitement from gambling. Therefore, the gambling behaviour is likely to be repeated to gain the same reward. - Gambling can also be seen as a distraction for some from anxieties of everyday life. Gambling can act as negative reinforcement to distract the individual from their unpleasant feelings and anxiety. - Therefore, they will continue to engage in gambling behaviour to avoid the negative consequence of anxiety.

Answer 18

- Where behaviour is reinforced only some of the time. - If a person is rewarded every time they may become bored, therefore partial reinforcement enables a person to develop an addiction due to reinforcements being limited to only some of the time, and not consistently, - therefore making the gambling more exciting (rewarding) as the individual is unsure when they will next win, so the behaviour does not extinguish, even when the wins stop.

Answer 19

Fixed rate Variable reinforcement

Answer 20

A type of partial reinforcement where behaviour is reinforced a predictable amount of times e.g. a slot machine paying out every tenth time. Or every 5 minutes. This does NOT form an addiction.

Answer 21

A type of partial reinforcement where behaviour is reinforced an unpredictable amount of times (at variable intervals) e.g. you win at black jack on the 15th time, then on the 2nd time, then on the 7th etc. This highly more reinforcing (rewarding) as it is highly unpredictable and exciting and therefore leads to stronger, more persistent gambling behaviour. UNPREDICTABILITY=BUZZ=MORE ADDICTIVE

Answer 22

P- A strength of the learning theory explanation of gambling addiction has practical applications. E- This is because the principles of the theory that addiction is caused by pleasant associations between gambling and excitement, has led to behavioural interventions such as aversion therapy. E- This is where gambling is re-associated with a negative stimulus i.e. electric shocks, rather than a feeling of pleasure and excitement. L- Therefore, the learning theory as an explanation of gambling addiction is an important part of applied psychology as it helps treat gambling addictions in the real world.

Answer 23

P- However, the learning theory as an explanation of gambling addictions can be criticised for environmental determinism. E- This is because is it states that an individual is controlled by reinforcements that cause behaviour. E- For example, if person is rewarded for gambling by the feeling of euphoria, or the occasional win, they will gamble again to get the same reward. This neglects the role of free will and choice and individual has, for example, a person may choose not to continue gambling, despite the ‘buzz’ due to being aware of the potential financial losses. L- The learning theory cannot account for this and therefore may not be a full explanation of gambling behaviour.

Answer 24

P- An alternative explanation for gambling addiction is the cognitive explanation. E- This theory would suggest that gambling is due to distorted, maladaptive thought processes and cognitive biases E- such as faulty beliefs of skills and judgement whereby a person is more likely to gamble as they overestimate their ability to influence a random event, rather than positive reinforcements such as the excitement which comes from the unpredictability of gambling. L- Therefore, this limits the learning theory and should not be the sole explanation that is considered when explaining an individual’s gambling addiction.

Answer 25

- Sees addictive behaviour as a result of cognitive distortions and/or faulty thought processes. - Cognitive bias is where a person’s thinking, memory and attentional processes are faulty leading an individual to make irrational judgements and poor decisions. - These biases influence how gamblers think about their behaviour, what they pay attention to, and what they remember and what they forget.

Answer 26

Rickwood et al 2010 classified cognitive biases into four categories.

Answer 27

1. Faulty beliefs of skills and judgement 2. Ritual behaviours/Engaging in personal traits 3. Selective recall 4. Faulty perceptions

Answer 28

Gambling addicts have an illusion of control, which means they overestimate their ability to influence a random event

Answer 29

For example, they believe they are skilled at choosing lottery number, making them more likely to gamble.

Answer 30

Addicted gamblers believe they have a greater probability of winning over other people because they are lucky or have engaged in superstitious behaviour

Answer 31

For example, touching a certain item of clothing before placing a bet makes them more likely to win.

Answer 32

Addicted gamblers remember certain types of information/memories/events better than others

Answer 33

For example, they are more likely to recall their wins but forget their loses describing them as unexplainable mysteries, leading them to be more likely to gamble

Answer 34

Addicted gamblers have distorted views about the operation of chance (gamblers fallacy)

Answer 35

Belief that a losing streak cannot last and will always be ended with a win, making them more likely to gamble.

Answer 36

- Refers to an individual’s perceived ability to control their own behaviour, which can explain why some people relapse into gambling again after abstaining. - Addicts with low self-efficacy believe they cannot give up gambling and it will always be a ‘part of them’. - In turn, this leads to a self-fulfilling prophecy in which the individual continues to gamble because their belief is they cannot stop themselves. - This causes their gambling addiction to be reinforced due to the gamblers belief that they lack control over this aspect of their life.

Answer 37

P- Research to support the cognitive explanation of gambling comes from Griffiths (1994) E- who carried out a natural experiment on a sample of 30 regular gamblers comparing them to a control group of 30 occasional gamblers. E- They played on a fruit machine and were asked to ‘think aloud’ and verbalise their thought processes whilst playing and were interviewed afterwards. They found that regular gamblers saw themselves as ‘skilful’ at the fruit machine, made more irrational statements compared to occasional gamblers and were more likely to explain losses as ‘near wins’. L- This supports the cognitive explanation of gambling because it demonstrates the faulty thought processes and control that gamblers believe they have over a random event.

Answer 38

P- However, the use of ‘thinking aloud’ research has been questioned. E- This self report method is used in a lot of studies in to the cognitive explanation of gambling. E- Some psychologists believe that what people say in gambling situations does not necessarily represent what they really think. ‘Off the cuff’ remarks made whilst gambling may not reflect an addicts deeply-held beliefs about chance and skill. Therefore researchers may get misleading impression that gamblers’ thought processes are irrational when infact they are not. L- Limiting the validity of the research used to support the cognitive explanation of gambling.

Answer 39

P- An alternative explanation for gambling addiction is the learning theory. E- This would suggest that a gambling addiction is due to positive reinforcement of the reward of a ‘buzz’ (euphoria) when gambling that makes the individual repeat the gambling behaviour to experience the same reward, E- rather than cognitive biases such as believing they can influence a random event (skills and judgement) being the reason for gambling. L- Therefore the cognitive explanation is not the only explanation of gambling addiction that should be considered.

Answer 40

P- However, a strength of the cognitive theory as an explanation of gambling addiction is that it has practical applications. E- This is because the principles of the theory, that addiction is caused by cognitive biases and faulty though processes has led to the development of cognitive behaviour therapy. E- This is effective in treating behaviour by identifying and challenging the irrational and faulty thought processes that have lead an individual to gamble (INC EXAMPLE) and changing them into rational and logical thought processes via disputing. L- Therefore, the cognitive explanation is an important part of applied psychology as it helps people overcome their gambling addiction in the real world.

Answer 41

Drug therapy Behavioural intervention- aversion therapy and covert sensitisation Cognitive Behavioural Therapy

Answer 42

Nicotine replacement therapy (NRT) - (agonist substitution)

Answer 43

Provide nicotine from a less harmful source e.g. patches, gum, nasal spray, rather than a cigarette

Answer 44

1. Stimulates the nicotine receptors and activates the brain’s reward pathway, releasing dopamine into the limbic system, stimulating the nucleus accumbens and creating the same pleasurable feeling as smoking a cigarette does. 2. This can lead to a reduction in nicotine withdrawal symptoms and stops cravings. 3. The reduction in withdrawal symptoms is an example of negative reinforcement as the NRT removes the unpleasant circumstances of quitting smoking. 4. NRT also desensitises the nicotine receptors in the brain by releasing small amounts of nicotine so that only some receptors are full of nicotine, but not all. 5. Therefore, over time the number of nicotine receptors reduces meaning that cigarettes become less rewarding to smoke, therefore relapse is less likely to occur. 6. The addict can gradually reduce the dosage of nicotine as their tolerance to nicotine is reduced.

Answer 45

No specific drug treatment for gambling has been approved in the UK. Ongoing research into several, most promising= opiod antagonist (naltrexone, which is conventionally used to treat heroin addiction bc of the similarities between gambling addictions and substance addictions) OPIOID ANTAGONIST

Answer 46

Reduce the pleasurable feeling associated with gambling.

Answer 47

1. Opioid Antagonists (Naltrexone) enhance the release of the neurotransmitter GABA in the mesolimbic pathway. 2. The increased GABA activity reduces the release of dopamine in the nucleus accumbens (and ultimately pre-frontal cortex). 3. Some research (e.g. Kim et al) has linked this with reductions in gambling behaviour.

Answer 48

P- Stead et al (2012) carried out research to support the effectiveness of nicotine replacement therapy (NRT). E- They reviewed 150 high-quality research studies that compared the use of NRT with a placebo. E- They found that all forms of NRT (gum, inhalers, patches) were significantly more effective in helping smokers quit than placebos and no treatment at all. L- Therefore, supporting drug therapy as a way of reducing addiction, as it has been found to be very effective.

Answer 49

P- However, a limitation of using drug therapy such as NRT and opioid antagonists (Naltrexone) is the negative side effects. E- Common side effects of these drugs include sleep disturbance, stomach problems, dizziness and headaches E- UNLIKE CBT which is non-invasive as the individual is identifying and challenging irrational thoughts that have led to their addiction. These side effects of drug therapy may cause an individual to stop treatment resulting in a relapse of symptoms, L- therefore, drug therapy would be ineffective at reducing an individual’s addiction.

Answer 50

P- However, a strength of drug therapy in reducing addiction is that it requires little motivation from the patient. E- This is because the patient just has to wear a patch or chew gum to reduce their addiction, E- UNLIKE CBT which requires more effort and motivation from the patient as they will have to commit to CBT sessions over months and have to complete homework outside of these, so they must be very motivated to quit. L- Therefore, drug therapy may be seen as a more appropriate treatment for reducing addiction than others such as CBT.

Answer 51

P- Each type of NRT varies in terms of effectiveness and appropriateness. E- Patches are seen to be more convenient since only one is needed per day whereas the effects of gum are shorter lived so addicts needs more to feel the same effects. E- More recently, e-cigarettes have become available and research has shown that smokers prefer this form of NRT as is mimics the act of smoking and e-cigarettes have also shown to be more effective as smokers were 50% more likely to try to quit smoking using these. L- Therefore, although all forms of NRT work in the same way, different methods are more effective/appropriate for different individuals.

Answer 52

Aversion therapy Covert sensitisation

Answer 53

Behavioural interventions include aversion therapy and covert sensitisation. Both work on the principles of classical conditioning and aim to replace the pleasurable association with the addictive substance/behaviour with an unpleasant association. (Counterconditioning)

Answer 54

The idea of the therapy is to use the principles of classical conditioning to change the pleasurable association with the addictive substance/behaviour and replace it with an unpleasant association in a vivo (physical) experience.

Answer 55

1. One specific technique used is ‘Rapid Smoking.’ 2. Individuals will sit alone in a room taking a puff of a cigarette every 6 seconds. 3. They will begin to feel nauseous and sick and start to associate this feeling to smoking (principles of CC). 4.This is repeated until the individual develops an aversion to smoking, thus reducing their addiction. UCR- Nausea paired with NS- Cigarette causes association so Cigarette-CR and Nausea-CR

Answer 56

1. Electric shocks have been used for some behavioural addictions such as gambling. 2. The shocks used do not cause permanent damage, but they are meant to avert people from gambling and therefore do cause pain (they are pre-selected by participants at the start of treatment). 3. The addicted gambler thinks of phrases that relate to his or her gambling behaviour and writes them down on cards, for example, ‘lottery’, and ‘casino’. 4. Some non-gambling behaviours are also included e.g. ‘went straight home’. 5. The participant is asked to read out each card and when they get to a gambling-related phrase they are given a two-second electric shock. 6. The participant should then associate (classical conditioning) gambling with the painful shock, rather than pleasure and develop an aversion to gambling, reducing their addiction.

Answer 57

1. Given an aversive drug such as disulfiram (Antabuse). 2. This interferes with the bodily process of metabolising alcohol into harmless chemicals. 3. This means a person who drinks alcohol whilst taking disulfiram will experience severe nausea and vomiting. 4. The aim of this is for the individual to associate the alcohol with the nausea and develop an aversion to drinking alcohol as it would cause a conditioned response of nausea, reducing their addiction.

Answer 58

The idea of the therapy is that the pleasurable association with the addictive substance/behaviour has to be broken down and replaced with an unpleasant association in a vitro (in your head) experience.

Answer 59

1. Client is encouraged to relax. 2. Therapist then reads from a script asking the client to imagine an aversive situation. 3. For example, the client may imagine himself or herself smoking a cigarette followed by the most unpleasant consequences e.g. the experience of vomiting, or imagine themselves smoking a cigarette covered in faeces. 4. The more vivid/ graphic the imaginary scene is the better the treatment works. Therefore, the therapist will go into graphic detail about certain elements of the scene (smells, sounds, physical movements). 5. Towards the end of the session, the client imagines turning their back on the addiction and experiencing the resulting feelings of relief. 6. The participant should then associate the addiction with the unpleasant scenario, rather than pleasure, reducing their addiction.

Answer 60

P- McConaghy et al (1983) carried out research to support the effectiveness of behavioural interventions at reducing gambling addiction. E- They compared electric shock aversion therapy with covert sensitisation in treating gambling addiction. E- It was found that in a one year follow up; those who had received covert sensitisation were significantly more likely to have reduced their gambling activities (90% covert sensitisation compared to 30% aversion therapy). L- Therefore, suggesting covert sensitisation is more effective behavioural intervention for treating gambling addiction compared to aversion therapy.

Answer 61

P- Moreover, some may question how ethical aversion therapy is as a method of reducing addiction. E- It is thought that aversion therapy such as rapid smoking, electric shock therapy and Antabuse could cause physical and/or psychological harm such as making the person physically sick or giving them electric shocks. E- For this reason, covert sensitisation may be more appropriate as the therapy is carried out in a vitro (imaginary) experience, potentially reducing any physical or psychological harm, L- suggesting covert sensitisation may be more appropriate than aversion therapy at reducing addiction.

Answer 62

P- However, aversion therapy could be considered as ethical, E- this is because addiction to drugs and gambling is itself potentially dangerous to physical and psychological health where as aversion therapy is less dangerous. E- Individuals would be fully informed of what the therapy entails and they could give consent, L- moreover in electric shock aversion therapy individuals chose the intensity of the shocks so that they may be painful but they are not life-threatening.

Answer 63

P- However, a weakness of behavioural interventions, both covert sensitisation and aversion therapy, in reducing addiction is that they require motivation and commitment from the patient. E- This is because the patient has to commit to attending sessions and work with the therapist E- to unlearn their addictive behaviour whilst placing themselves in aversive situations such as feeling sick or receiving electric shocks unlike drug therapy which requires less commitment and motivation as the patient is only required to take a tablet or wear a nicotine patch/have gum in order to reduce their addiction. L- Due to this, individuals may drop out of behavioural intervention therapies, thus reducing their effectiveness as a method of reducing addiction.

Answer 64

To identify and challenge cognitive distortions that are causing an addiction as a way of coping and replace them with more adaptive ways of thinking via cognitive restructuring.

Answer 65

1. Functional analysis 2. Cognitive restructuring 3. Social skills 4. Homework

Answer 66

1. A therapist will ask the client to identify the high-risk situations/triggers to their addiction e.g. walking past a betting shop, and ask them to report what they are thinking before, during and after the addiction. 2. The relationship between the client-therapist is critical, it should be warm and responsive, but not cosy. 3. This is because the therapist must challenge the client’s biased cognitions and not merely accept them.

Answer 67

1. Used to change irrational/maladaptive thoughts to rational/adaptive ones. 2. For example, if a person had a gambling addiction, they may have irrational beliefs that they win more than they lose (selective recall), this could be challenged via empirical disputing 3. for example, the therapist could ask ‘where is the evidence that you win more than you lose?’

Answer 68

1. E.G. An individual will learn how to refuse the addictive behaviour (gambling) or substance without embarrassment and fuss in social situations. 2. This is done by the therapist teaching the patient how to act within a social situation, for example making eye contact and being firm in the refusal to gamble, in a safe and secure environment (role play). 3. Moreover, the client would be taught avoidance strategies, where the client would learn to avoid situations that are likely to produce addictive behaviours (high risk situations identified in functional analysis) i.e. driving a different way home to avoid driving past a betting shop.

Answer 69

1. The patient practices these social skills within the real world on their own 2. Reports back to their therapist until they feel confident within social situations, where their addictive behaviour/substance is available. 3. This leads to relapse prevention.

Answer 70

P- Research to support the effectiveness of CBT in reducing gambling addiction was conducted by Perty et al (2006). E- They randomly allocated gamblers to a control group who received Gamblers Anonymous (GA) meetings or a treatment condition who received GA meetings and an eight-session CBT programme. E- It was found that the patients in the treatment condition were gambling significantly less than the control group of patients. L- Therefore, demonstrating the effectiveness of CBT in reducing addictions such as gambling.

Answer 71

P- However, a limitation of CBT in reducing addiction is that for some it may not be as effective as it requires motivation from the patient. E- This is because the patient has to commit to a number of CBT sessions over months; they would have to challenge their irrational thoughts that are causing their addiction and would also be set homework to complete outside of the sessions such as avoidance strategies. E- This is UNLIKE DRUG THERAPY where a patient just has to take a tablet or wear a nicotine patch/have nicotine gum to reduce their addiction. L- Therefore, CBT may be seen as a less appropriate treatment for reducing addiction than others such as drug therapy as patients may drop out of treatment and therefore relapse.

Answer 72

P- A strength of CBT as a way of reducing addiction is that it avoids chemical dependence. E- This is because the patients are taught the skills to identify and challenges their own cognitive distortions which are causing their addicion e.g. feeling they cannot cope without the substance/behaviour and so are taking control of their own addiction. E- This is unlike drug therapy where the patient is dependent on the drugs to control their addiction by regulating their levels of nicotine/dopamine. L- Therefore, it could be argues that CBT is a more appropriate way to reduce addiction as patients do not become dependent on a drug.

Answer 73

How a set of 3 interacting beliefs can influence a person’s intention to change and therefore whether the therapy will be effective or not.

Answer 74

Attitudes Subjective norms Control

Answer 75

If individual= >>> negative attitudes towards addiction than positive== <<< likely to intend to do to the addictive behaviour e.g. gamble, less likely to actually gamble and therefore more likely to change their addictive behaviour.

Answer 76

if addicted person believes people who matter most to them disapprove of the addictive behaviour == makes them less likely to intend to engage in the addictive behaviour == less likely to gamble/smoke + more likely to change their addictive behaviour.

Answer 77

how much control (self efficacy) a person feels they have over their own behaviour + ability to change influences their intention. Based on: * Internal factors e.g. determination * External factors e.g. support * Past experience e.g. have successfully given up before? Most important part of the model as without the control (will-power) a person is still vulnerable to addiction.

Answer 78

All 3 interacting components need to be present to influence a person’s intentions to stop their addiction. If one component is missing they will not have an intention to stop so therapy will not be offered.

Answer 79

P- Research to support the theory of planned behaviour comes from Haggar et al (2011). E- They asked 486 ppts to complete questionnaires about their alcohol-related behaviours at the start of the research and then one and three months later. E- They found that personal attitudes and subjective norms correlated significantly with the intention to limit drinking to match guidelines. Perceived control predicted actual unit consumption, increasing its validity in explaining behaviour change in addiction. L- This supports the TPB as the three components interact to effect an individual’s intention to stop.

Answer 80

P- However, a problem with much of the research into TPB is that they rely on questionnaires which are prone to social desirability. E- Individual’s may lie about their intentions towards their addiction in order to present themselves in the best possible light, especially as the topic of addiction is socially sensitive. E- For example, they may say they intend to drink within guidelines to avoid being judged. L- Therefore, this reduces the validity of the research supporting TPB of behaviour change.

Answer 81

P- A strength of TPB is that it has led to practical applications. E- This is because the principles of TPB can be used to predict who therapy is most likely to be successful for example, if person missing one of the components e.g. attitudes they will not have intention to change and so will not be offered therapy. E- This will help the NHS prioritise their limited resources on individuals with high intention to change and reducing waiting times for therapy. L- Therefore, TPB is an important area of applied psychology.

Answer 82

- Explains the process involved in behavioural change that can be used to explain how individuals overcome an addiction. - Has a cyclical nature, and takes a positive and dynamic approach, to changing addictive behaviour as opposed to an all or nothing approach. - Recognises that people differ in how ready they are to give up their addiction and how useful a treatment intervention will be depends on which stage the individual is at.

Answer 83

1. Pre-contemplation 2. Contemplation 3. Preparation 4. Action 5. Maintenance 6. Termination

Answer 84

Individual does not consider themselves as having a problem and isn’t thinking about changing their behaviour even though they know it is not healthy. This could be due to denial or demotivation. E.G. ‘Ignorance is bliss’ ‘I am ok right now’

Answer 85

Individual is now thinking about changing their behaviour and has an awareness that they need to take action. They are aware of the costs (e.g. less enjoyment) and benefits (e.g. health) to changing. E.G. ‘I will change tomorrow’

Answer 86

This stage where the person belives the benefits of changing behaviour are outweighing the costs. They decide to change within the next month but maybe not exactly what they will do to change. E.G. Ok I’m ready for this’ ‘I’m changing next month so I need to plan how I will do it’

Answer 87

This is when the plan is put into action. Usually at this stage, the individual has done something to change their behavior in the last six months e.g. behavioural or cognitive therapies or pour away alcohol and is continuing with their behavior change. E.G. I have stopped’ ‘Let’s do this’

Answer 88

The individual has maintained some change of behaviour for more than six months. The focus is on relapse prevention such as avoiding situations where cues might trigger the addiction. This stage can be lengthy and the individual needs to keep focused on the long-term goal of termination. E.G. I have still stopped’ ‘Stay on track’

Answer 89

Newly acquired behaviours such as abstinence become automatic. The individual no longer turns to addictive behaviours to cope with stress, anxiety etc. They are confident in their ability to resist the behaviour. May not be possible for all people to achieve. It may be that the most appropriate goal for some is to prolong maintenance for as long as they can, accepting that relapse might be inevitable and providing them with skills to work through the earlier stages of the process quickly. E.G. ‘I will never do it again’

Answer 90

P- However, Prochaska's six-stage model of behaviour change has been criticised as some argue that the stages of change are not well differentiated. E- Pa Kraft et al (1999) argue that the six-stages can be reduced to just two useful stages, pre contemplation plus the others grouped, as the person is thinking about change in all of these later stages but not in the first. E- This has important implications as each stage in Prochaska's model is matched with a specific intervention. L- Therefore, this could limit Prochaska's usefulness as a model of behaviour change and for treatment recommendations.

Answer 91

P- However, Prochaska's six-stage model of behaviour change can be praised because it takes a positive view of relapse. E- The six-stage model does not view relapse as a failure, but as an inevitable part of the dynamic, un-linear process of behaviour change. E- Although, relapse is more than a 'slip' the model takes it seriously and does not underestimate its potential to knock an addict off the course of recovery. L- This means the six-stage model of behaviour change is more acceptable as a result of its positive outlook on relapse.

Answer 92

P- Finally, much of the research in to Prochaska's six-stage model is based on self-report methods (questionnaire and interviews) which could lead to social desirability. E- Prochaska based this model on nicotine addicts and the changes in their thinking when giving up, E- they could have lied about how logical their thought processes were when giving up to present themselves in the best possible light. L- Therefore, this reduces the internal validity of the research into Prochaska's six-stage model of behaviour change.

Answer 93

Intro Name all 6 Explain 3 ALWAYS MAINTENANCE, one from top one from middle one from bottom

Answer 94

Intro Name all 6 Explain 2 briefly ALWAYS MAINTENANCE, one from top one from middle one from bottom

Addiction Flashcards

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