Approaches Flashcards
(103 cards)
1
Q
What is the acronym to evaluate approaches and define each one?
A
DREAMS
Determinism vs Free Will- how much control we have over our behaviour according to this approach?
Reductionism vs Holism- is behaviour explained solely by simple basic units?
Evidence- which studies are there that support this approach?
Applications- Has the apprach lead to applications e.g. treatment? Alternative explanation/ apprach? Animal bias?
Methodology- which research methods are used by this approach?
Scientific methods- is the approach based on objective, empirical measures?
2
Q
Define the term ‘science’.
A
Gaining knowledge through the use of objective (factual) invesitgation.
3
Q
Outline Wilhem Wundt’s role in the development/emergence of psychology as a science.
A
- Wundt is known as the ‘Father of Psychology’.
- He set up the first psychology laboratory in Germany in 1879 and published one of the first books on psychology, helping to establish the subject as an independent branch of science.
- He used controlled environments to establish general theories about mental processes.
- He used the scientific method to study the structure of sensation and perception using introspection, arguing that human experiences should be analysed in term of its components e.g. sensations, emotions and reactions (our present experiences)
- His work and ideas were then later developed by cognitive psychologists who study our thought/mental processes.
4
Q
AO3- What can Wundt be praised for because he used controlled experiences with standardised procedures to study thoughts, feelings and sensations?
A
P- Wundt can be praised for moving psychology away from its philosophical roots.
E- He used controlled environments with a standardised procedure to study thoughts, feelings and sensations,
E- such as using the same stimulus every time (ticking metronome) and giving the participants the same standardised instructions.
L- This therefore increases the ability to replicate the pieces of research and increases Psychology’s status and emergence as a science.
5
Q
AO3- What is a limitation of Wundt’s research because introspection focusses on a participant’s subjective experience?
A
P- However, although the research was replicable it was not reliable.
E- This is because introspection focuses on a participant’s subjective experience and therefore findings varied greatly from person to person, making it difficult to establish consistent general principles of human behaviour.
E- Behaviourist psychologists such as Watson believed Psychology should only study behaviour that could be observed and measured scientifically.
L- As a result of this, the behaviourist approach was born which used more empirical and objective methods, such as carefully controlled lab experiments, to study human behaviour, increasing the scientific status of Psychologh as a subject.
6
Q
What are the two types of learning approaches?
A
Behaviorist Approach
Social Learning Theory
7
Q
What theories does the behaviourist approach propose?
A
Classical conditioning- Pavlov
Operant conditioning- Skinner
8
Q
Give the assumptions about human behaviour for the behaviourist approach.
A
- Humans are born as a blank slate.
- All behaviour is learnt from the environment and therefore can be unlearnt.
- Our behaviour is all due to learning so free will is not possible.
9
Q
What is the AO1 for the behaviourist approach?
A
- Behaviourists were only interested in studying behaviour that can be observed and measured.
- Watson rejected introspection claiming it was too subjective and not measurable. Therefore, behaviourists rely on lab experiments as these are a better way of maintaining control and objectively measuring behaviour.
- Behaviourists believe that animals can replace humans in research because they learn in the same way as humans.
10
Q
Outline feature 1 of the behaviourist approach.
A
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
1. Ivan Pavlov explained how behaviour is learnt through stimulus, response and association.
2. In this form of learning the NS is paired with a UCS that produces and UCR. If this pairing is repeated then the individual will learn to associate the NS with the UCR, therefore, the NS becomes a CS which creates a CR.
11
Q
Outline the research around feature 1 of the behaviourist approach.
A
- In a controlled environment, Pavlov showed that dogs could be conditioned to salivate at the sound of a bell.
- UCS= food, UCR= salivation, NS= bell
- During the experiment, the dogs were presented with the food, and Pavlov rang a bell simultaneously. He repeated this association many times.
- The dogs learnt to associate the food (UCS) with the noise of the bell (NS). The bell became the CS which would cause the CR of salivation every time the dog heard it.
12
Q
Outline feature 2 of the behaviourist approach.
A
OPERANT CONDITIONING
1. Skinner explained how behaviour is influenced by the consequences of our own actions. He focused on the importance of reinforcement in increasing behaviour and punishment in stopping the behaviour.
2. There are 2 types of reinforcement which increase the likelihood that the behaviour will be repeated, whereas punishment will reduce/stop the behaviour.
13
Q
Outline positive reinforcement as part of feature 2 of the behaviourist approach.
A
Positive reinforcement is when a reward is given for a behaviour, this behaviour is encouraged/reinforced, so the behaviour is repeated to gain the same reward.
In Skinner’s research, a hungry rat was placed in Skinner’s box; every time the rat pressed the lever, the rat was rewarded with food. This behaviour was repeated as the rat was conditioned to press the lever through positive reinforcement to get the same positive outcome.
14
Q
Outline negative reinforcement as a part of feature 2 of the behaviourist approach.
A
Negative reinforcement is performing a behaviour to remove/avoid an unpleasant consequence so the behaviour is repeated to avoid the unpleasant consequence again. In Skinner’s research, Skinner ran an electrical current across the floor which caused the rat discomfort. The rat would move around until it knocked the lever. The lever would stop the current; the rat would repeat this behaviour as it had earned by pressing the lever it would avoid the unpleasant consequence of pain.
15
Q
Outline punishment as a part of feature 2 of the behaviourist approach.
A
Punishment is receiving an unpleasant consequence for behaviour, e.g. detention from a teacher for not bringing in homework.
16
Q
AO3- Why may some argue that determinism could be a strength of the behaviourist approach because treatments can be developed?
A
P- However, some would argue the fact that determinism could be a strength of the behaviourist approach, if a cause for behaviour can be established then treatments can be developed, due to this, a strength of the behaviourist approach is that it has practical applications.
E- The principles of the theory, that behaviour is caused by classical conditioning has led to the treatment of systematic desensitisation.
E- This is effective in treating phobias by helping the individual to unlearn their maladaptive association to a phobic stimulus by gradually exposing them to their phobia whilst they apply relaxation techniques.
L- Therefore, the behaviourist explnanation of human behaviour is an important part of applied psychology as it helps to treat people in the real world.
17
Q
AO3- What can the behaviourist approach of human behaviour be criticised for because the approach states that an individual is controlled by external factors?
A
P- The behaviourist explanation of human behaviour can be criticised for environmental determinism.
E- This is because the approach states that an individual is controlled by external factors such as learning through stimulus, response and association (classical conditioning) or being rewarded for a behaviour (operant conditioning) that inevitably cause behaviour.
E- e.g. giving a sticker to a child after they clean their room.
L- Therefore, it neglects the role of free will, and choice that individuals have; this could leave individuals feeling like they have no control over their behaviour. Limiting the behaviourist explanation of human behaviour.
18
Q
AO3- However, what is a weakness of the behaviourist explanation of human behaviour because it uses animals to investigate human behaviour?
A
P- However, a weakness of the behaviourist explanation of human behaviour is that it is criticised for animal bias.
E- This is because it uses animals to investigate human behaviour for example; Pavlov used dogs to investigate classical conditioning and Skinner used rats to investigate operant conditioning.
E- This is potentially a problem because human behaviour may be more complex than animal behaviour as they have higher mental functioning.
L- Therefore, there are issues with generalising the findings of the research to human behaviour, casting doubt on the behaviourist explanation of human behaviour.
19
Q
Who founded the social learning theory as a learning approach and what is an important fact to remember about the SLT?
A
Bandura
The SLT is an extension of the learning approach. The SLT is not a behaviourist approach.
20
Q
Give the assumptions for the social learning theory.
A
Albert Bandura claimed that classical and operant conditioning could not explain all human behaviour and so he suggested the SLT.
- SLT suggests learning is through observing a model and imitating a model.
- It considers cognitive factors involved in learning behaviour (we have an element of free will as we can choose who (model) we identify with)
- That we learn behaviour directly (through bringing rewarded or punishing ourselves) and indirectly/vicariously (learning from seeing someone else rewarded or punished).
21
Q
Outline feature 1, observational learning, of the social learning theory using keywords such as identification, imitation, vicarious reinforcement and modelling.
A
- Identification is where an individual (observer) associates (identifies) himself/herself with a role model due to similarity or status and wants to be like the role model. Therefore, a person is more likely to imitate the behaviours of these models.
- Imitation is the term used to describe when an individual observes a behaviour from a role model and copies it.
- Vicarious reinforcement is if a person sees a role model rewarded for a particular behaviour then it increases the chance that the observer will imitate the behaviour to receive the same reward. This is indirect reinforcement.
THIS LEADS TO… - Modelling where the individual will imitate the behaviour of the role model. From a role models view, they are precisely showing the observer a specific behaviour to be imitated.
22
Q
Outline feature 2, the four mediational processes, of the social learning theory.
A
The four mediational processes occur between stimulus (observing) and response (imitating). Bandura states that observational learning involves these 4 cognitive processes:
- Attention- learning occurs when they attend to a model’s behaviour, e.g. children must observe what the model is doing or saying in order to reproduce the model’s behaviour. Our attention must be captured.
- Retention- To reproduce the modelled behaviour they must store the memory of this behaviour in LTM, allowing the behaviour to be remembered (retrieved). This is more likely if the information is easy to store, memorable, and especially if the behaviour is observed repeatedly.
- Reproduction- Individuals must have the skills and capabilities to be confident that they could reproduce the model’s behaviour, again this is more likely if the behaviour is easy to replicate. The behaviour is also more likely to be repeated if it is simple.
- Motivation/reinforcements- an individual may be motivated to imitate the behaviour because they have seen someone else rewarded for the behaviour (indirect/vicarious reinforcement) or because they identify with the model (similarity).
23
Q
AO3- What did Bandura find from research he conducted on Bobo Dolls?
A
P- Bandura conducted research to support the SLT in psychology.
E- Bandura found that when children observed a model acting aggressively towards a Bobo Doll, they were more likely to imitate the aggressive behaviour.
E- Whereas, 70% of the children who observed a non-aggressive model or no model showed zero ratings of aggression.
L- Therefore, evidencing how observation of behaviour can lead to imitative learning and the importance of a role model as the SLT suggests.
24
Q
AO3- What is a strength of the SLT because the principles of the theory can be used by the government to control how the media portray certain behaviours.
A
P- A strength of SLT explanation of human behaviour is that it has practical applications.
E- This is because the principles of the theory, that behaviour is caused by observing and imitating a model, which has been used by the government to control how the media portrays certain behaviours
E- e.g. restricted the advertisement of cigarettes and alcohol in order to reduce this negative behaviour.
L- Therefore, the SLT explanation of human behaviour is an important part of applied psychology as it helps to promote positive behaviours in the real world.
25
AO3- Moreover, why is the SLT praised for going above the behaviourist approach as all human behaviour is a result of external causes?
P- Moreover, the SLT is praised for going beyond the behaviourist approach (which states humans have no choice but to learn)
E- and considers that humans have an element of free will in their learning.
E- All human behaviour is a result of external causes (learning through observing and imitating a model) yet, as individuals, we also have the ability to make concious decisions about whether or not to imitate a behaviour and who we choose to model behaviour from.
L- Therefore, the SLT explanation of human behaviour could be considered superior to approaches that take a hard determinism stance.
26
Give the assumptions for the psychodynamic approach.
1. Founded by Sigmund Freud.
2. Behaviour is due to unconscious motives.
3. Focusses on past experiences- especially in relationships with our parents and childhood conflicts in creating behaviour and personality.
4. Our understanding of ourselves is distorted by defence mechanisms.
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What does the psychodynamic approach focus on?
The psychodynamic approach focusses on the unconscious mind and the individual's past experiences, not the present.
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Name the four features of the psychodynamic approach.
1. Role of the unconscious
2. The structure of personality
3. Defence mechanisms
4. The psychosexual stages.
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1. Role of the unconscious- What information does the unconscious mind store to protect the conscious?
The unconscious part of the mind contains information that we are not consciously aware of such as repressed memories, the unconscious protects our conscious self from anxiety or fears. The unconscious drives much of our behaviour, e.g. our personality and behaviours.
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1. Role of the unconscious- Explain the conscious part of the mind.
Conscious- the part of the mind that we know about and are aware of- 'the tip of the iceberg'.
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1. Role of the unconscious- Explain the preconscious part of the mind.
Preconscious- the part of the mind that is just below the conscious mind- and includes thoughts and ideas which we may become aware of during dreams or 'slips of the tongue (Freudian slip)
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1. Role of the unconscious- Explain the unconscious part of the mind.
Unconscious- the part of the mind that we are unaware of- biological drives and instincts and threatening and disturbing memories that have been repressed or locked away and forgotten but continue to drive our behaviour.
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2. The structure of personality- What 3 parts are the personality made up of?
The personality is made up of 3 parts, the id, the ego, and the superego.
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2. The structure of personality- Explain the Id.
ID (Devil)
- Driven by the pleasure principle.
- Unconscious part of the mind.
- Only Id present at birth.
- Focus is on self (selfish), expects immediate gratification.
- If this is too overpowering for the ego, it can produce a selfish personality.
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2. The structure of personality- Explain the Ego.
Ego (Referee)
- Driven by the reality principle and is the 'self'.
- The rational and conscious part of the mind.
- Forms from 18 months to 3 years.
- Balances demands to reduce conflict between Id and Superego by using defence mechanisms.
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2. The structure of personality- Explain the Superego.
Superego (Angel)
- Driven by the morality principle.
- Our internalised sense of right and wrong (conscience) based on parental values.
- Forms between 3-6 years.
- Arises through identification with the same-sex parent.
- If this is too overpowering for the ego, it can produce an anxious personality/feelings of guilt.
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3. Defense mechanisms- Define the term defence mechanisms.
The term 'defence mechanisms' is defined as unconscious strategies that the ego uses to manage the conflict between the Id and the Superego. For example, repression is forcing a distressing memory out of the unconscious mind.
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3. Defence mechanisms- Describe the role of the ego in defence mechanisms.
The ego has a difficult job of balancing the conflicting demands of the Id and superego, so it will use defence mechanisms which are unconscious and stop the ego from being overwhelmed with conflicts.
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3. Defence mechanisms- Why are defence mechanisms not a long-term solution?
However, defence mechanisms can distort a person's reality (making it difficult to identify what is real and not real) and overuse can affect behaviour so they are not a long-term solution.
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3. Defence mechanisms- Explain repression as a defence mechanism.
Repression- Forcing a distressing memory out of the conscious mind and to the unconscious. For example, forgetting the trauma of your favourite pet dying.
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3. Defence mechanisms- Explain denial as a defence mechanism.
Denial- Refusing to acknowledge an unpleasant aspect of reality. For example, continuing to turn up for work even though you have been sacked.
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3. Defence mechanisms- Explain displacement as a defence mechanism.
Displacement- Transferring feelings from the true source of distressing emotion onto a less threatening substitute target. For example, slamming the door after a row with your mum.
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4. The psychosexual stages- What did Freud suggest about the Id?
Freud suggests that we are born with an Id and from the moment we are born the Id has innate sex energy that wants satisfaction.
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4. The psychosexual stages- What did Freud suggest about the 5 developmental stages?
Therefore, Freud suggested that all children progress through 5 developmental stages, known as the Psychosexual stages, as a way to explain how the Id gets sexual satisfaction from birth.
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4. The psychosexual stages- What must a child do at each stage to move to the next stage?
During most stages, there is a specific conflict, the outcome of which determines future development.
The child must resolve conflict at each stage before they can progress to the next and if they do not resolve this conflict, they will become 'fixated; which can lead to certain adulthood behaviours.
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4. The psychosexual stages- Explain stage 1, the oral stage.
Stage 1= Oral, 0-1 years.
Description- Gratification for the Id is gained from the mouth such as from dummies, thumb sucking and the mother's breast.
Consequence of unresolved conflict (fixation)- smoking, biting nails, sarcastic and critical in the future.
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4. The psychosexual stages- Explain stage 2, the anal stage.
Stage 2= Anal, 1-3 years.
Description- Gratification for the Id is gained from the anus such as expulsion or withholding of faeces (pooing).
Consequence of unresolved conflict (fixation)-
Anal retentive personality= perfectionist, obsessive.
Anal expulsive personality= thoughtless, messy.
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4. The psychosexual stages- Explain stage 3, the phallic stage.
Stage 3= Phallic, 3-5 years.
Description- Gratification for the Id is gained from exploring their own genitals. The child will need to identify with its same-sex parent and take on their values, attitudes and behaviours to resolve the conflict at this age.
Consequence of unresolved conflict (fixation)-
Phallic personality- reckless, narcissistic, problems with authority.
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4. The psychosexual stages- Explain stage 4, the latency stage.
7. Stage 4= Latency, 6-12 years.
Description- Earlier conflicts are repressed.
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4. The psychosexual stages- Explain stage 5, the genital stage.
Stage 5= Genital, 12 years.
Description- Sexual desires become conscious alongside puberty.
Consequence of unresolved conflict (fixation)- difficulty forming heterosexual relationships.
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AO3- What can the psychosexual be criticised for because the feature suggests that an individual is controlled by external and internal factors?
P- The psychosexual stages can be criticised for psychic determinism. This is because the feature suggests that an individual is controlled by external and internal factors
E- such as fixations occurring during specific stages that inevitably cause behaviour, such as oral fixations resulting in behaviour such as smoking.
E- Therefore, it neglects the role of free will, and choice that individuals have (suggesting free will is an illusion); this could leave individuals feeling like they have no control over their behaviour.
L- Limiting the appropriateness of using the psychosexual stages to explain human behaviour and development.
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AO3- What is the strength of the psychodynamic approach because the principles of the theory have led to treatments?
LOA- : However, some would argue that determinism could be strength of the psychodynamic approach, if a cause for behaviour can be established then treatments can be developed, due to this…
P- A strength of the psychodynamic explanation of human behaviour is that it has practical applications.
E- This is because the principles of the theory, that behaviour is caused by the unconscious mind has led to the treatment of psychoanalysis,
E- which can be used to treat abnormalities in the real world, such as depression and anxiety by dealing with conflicts hidden in the unconscious.
L- Therefore, the psychodynamic explanation of human behaviour is an important part of applied psychology as it helps to treat people in the real world
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AO3- What is a limitation of the psychodynamic approach because it lacks scientific rigour?
LOA- However, the extent to which this therapy is used in the real world is relatively small compared to other therapies such as CBT and drug therapy, especially when treating more serious mental illnesses such as schizophrenia where patients may struggle to identify what is real and what is not which means that those with the disorder may struggle to articulate their thoughts in a way needed for psychoanalysis.
P- A limitation of the psychodynamic approach to understanding the structure of personality in human behaviour is that it does not use scientific methods and therefore lacks scientific rigour.
E- This is because the key concepts such as the unconscious and the Id, ego, superego are abstract concepts, which cannot be objectively and empirically tested and falsified – they cannot be observed objectively.
E- Therefore, it could be argued that this decreases the overall internal validity of the psychodynamic approach’s explanation of the structure of personality, as well as human behaviour –
L- which could additionally reduce Psychology’s scientific status.
54
Give the assumptions of the humanistic approach.
- All humans can determine their own behaviour and have free will. - All humans have an innate need for self-actualisation (to reach their potential) and will achieve this provided they have the right environment for personal growth.
- Each person is a rational and conscious being and not dominated by unconscious primitive instincts.
- A person’s subjective experience and understanding of the world is of greater importance to understanding the person than objective reality.
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(Essay) Introduction to the humanistic approach.
- Humanistic Psychology developed in the 1950s and provided an opposing viewpoint to the behaviourist and psychodynamic approaches in how it explained human behaviour.
- The humanist approach argued these two theories were too negative and instead developed a positive theory, which aimed to promote healthy growth in individuals.
- Humanism focusses on the conscious mind and the individual’s present experiences and future possibilities, not the past
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What are the features of the humanistic approach?
1. Free will
2. Self actualisation
3. The self, conditions of worth and congruence
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1. Free will- Outline free will as a feature of the humanistic approach.
-Humanism argues, unlike other approaches that free will is possible.
-Humans are self-determining so our behaviour is due to our choices and we can reject any internal or external influences such as genes or unconscious motives.
-We have free will to make choices to enable personal change and growth so we are free to choose how we act.
-Due to this, humanistic psychology is concerned with the unique/subjective experience of individuals rather than general laws of human behaviour gained through scientific methods.
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2. Self-actualisation- What does humanism believe?
Humanism believes that all humans have the need to achieve their full potential – to become the best they possibly can be.
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2. Self-actualisation- Who developed the hierarchy of needs and what does it contain?
Maslow developed the hierarchy of needs. This contains a range of needs that a person requires for survival and growth. The more basic needs have to be met before higher needs can be achieved.
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2. Self-actualisation- Explain the hierarchy of needs pyramid.
1. The most basic needs are physiological needs that are required for survival e.g. food, water and sleep
2. Safety needs include having a home, security of a job and good health
3. Love and belonging are linked to giving and receiving acceptance and love such as having family and friends
4. Esteem needs include seeking the respect of others, achievement & self confidence
5. Self-actualisation is the highest level and is not a need we seek because of something we are lacking but for personal growth. We aim to fulfil our potential and this will continue to change throughout our lives
6. We can move up and down the hierarchy if needs are lost
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3. The self, conditions of worth and congruence- What does humanism argue?
Humanism argues that for a person to achieve personal growth there needs to be a focus on the self. Rogers suggests the concept of the self and the ideal self.
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3. The self, conditions of worth and congruence- What is the actual/perceived self?
- This refers to how we view ourselves in terms of what I am and what we can do.
- This self-concept comes from our own experiences of the world and through how other significant people (e.g. parents, and peers) view us and how they treat us.
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3. The self, conditions of worth and congruence- What is the ideal self?
This refers to the person we feel that we should be or the person that we want to be.
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3. The self, conditions of worth and congruence- Explain congruence and incongruence and explain what Rogers suggests.
- Congruence occurs when there is match/consistency between your perceived self (how you view yourself) and your ideal self (the person you want to be). If this occurs it enables a person to show personal growth and achieve their goals.
- When there is a MISMATCH between the perceived and ideal self we are in a STATE OF INCONGRUENCE they are likely to have low self-worth and poorer psychological health.
- Rogers would suggest a person should go through counselling to close the gap/discrepancy by developing a more healthy view of him/herself or a more realistic or achievable ideal self.
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3. The self, conditions of worth and congruence- Define conditions of worth and how they influence a person's development.
If a person has issues of low self-esteem and worthlessness in adulthood these may be a consequence of early childhood due to conditions of worth. In childhood, parents or significant others place limits on their love (may only show love or approval if specific conditions are met)
These conditions of worth influence the person in their development as they can believe they can only accept themselves or be happy when they reach these expectations that have been set by others, or in some cases themselves. This can also lead to incongruence.
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3. The self, conditions of worth and congruence- How can the effect of the conditions of worth be dealt with?
Counselling can help them deal with these issues as the therapist creates an environment where the person can feel unconditional positive regard. The therapist must accept the client's feelings and experiences and avoid making judgements about their value or validity. This helps resolve the conditions of worth and help guide the client towards self-actualisation by helping them focus on their authentic (genuine) self, so you are true to who you really are.
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Outline the influence of humanistic psychology on counselling (6 marks)
1. Roger’s Person-Centred Therapy is an IMPORTANT FORM OF MODERN-DAY COUNSELLING. His work has transformed therapy by introducing a variety of techniques.
2. Roger’s referred to the ‘patient’ as a ‘client’ because he saw the individual as an expert on their own condition. Therefore, PCT is NON-DIRECTIVE, and the client is encouraged to EXERT FREE WILL and discover solutions to their own problems.
3. Roger’s PCT has been praised as a forward-looking therapy as it focuses on present problems rather than dwelling on the past like Psychoanalysis.
4. The aim of PCT is to increase the person’s feeling of self-worth, reduce incongruence between the self and ideal self and ultimately help them to become a more fully functioning person.
5. In order for the therapy to be successful, Roger’s emphasised the importance of creating a warm, supportive and non-judgemental atmosphere where the individual can achieve personal growth and congruence. To do this, the therapist must show: genuineness, empathy and unconditional positive regard.
6. Roger’s PCT skills are practised in the UK and US, not only in clinical settings, but also throughout education, health and social work.
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AO3- What is a strength of the humanistic approach because it takes into account how a person's subjective experience would influence and explain their whole behaviour?
P- A strength of humanistic psychology is that it takes a holistic approach to explaining behaviour.
E-It takes into account how a person’s subjective experience would influence and explain their whole behaviour.
E- Whereas reductionist approaches such as behaviourism reduce complex human behaviour to a consequence of stimulus response associations.
L- Therefore, humanism is seen as a more valid way of understanding human behaviour in a real life context than the more reductionist alternative explanations.
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AO3- What is a further strength of the humanistic approach because the principles of the theory have revolutionised counselling techniques?
P- A further strength of the humanistic explanation of human behaviour is that it has practical applications.
E- This is because the principles of the theory, that individuals have the free will to choose their behaviour has revolutionised counselling techniques and has led to the treatment of Person-Centred Therapy.
E- PCT can be used to treat abnormalities in the real world, such as depression by helping the individual to achieve congruence and self-actualise.
L- Therefore, the humanistic explanation of human behaviour is an important part of applied psychology as it helps to treat people in the real world.
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AO3- What is one limitation of the humanistic approach because many of the concepts are associated with western cultures?
LOA- : However, the extent to which this therapy is used in the real world is relatively small compared to other therapies such as CBT and drug therapy, this could be due to humanistic psychology lacking a sound evidence base. This is because…
P- One limitation of the humanistic approach is that it is bound by culturally relativism.
E- Many of the concepts of humanism such as self actualisation and personal growth are associated with individualistic (western) cultures.
E- Collectivist cultures such as India emphasise the needs of community and working as a group.
L- Therefore it is possible that this approach does not apply universally and is limited to western cultures,
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Give the assumptions of the cognitive approach.
- It is our mental processes that affect behaviour e.g. our thoughts, memories and perceptions and these should be studied scientifically (lab experiments) allowing inferences to be made.
- The mind works like a computer in that it has input from the senses, which is processed and then produces an output such as, specific behaviour.
- Argues we have schemas that drive our behaviour including what we pay attention to, how we interpret events and what we remember.
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What are the features of the cognitive approach?
1. Study of internal mental processes
2. The use of theoretical and computer models
3. The role of schemas
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1. Study of internal mental processes- What does the cognitive approach argue about internal processes?
The cognitive approach argues that internal mental processes can be studied scientifically by investigating memory, perception and thinking. The cognitive approach believes that we actively process and organise information we receive rather than respond passively to our environment, as behaviourism suggests.
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1. Study of internal mental processes- What do cognitive psychologists suggest?
Cognitive psychologists suggest that our internal mental processes are ‘private’ and cannot be observed, so are studied indirectly by making inferences about what is going on INSIDE THE MIND (MENTAL PROCESSES) based on an individual’s behaviour.
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1. Study of internal mental processes- What is meant by inferences?
The process where cognitive psychologists go beyond the immediate evidence to draw logical assumptions about how internal mental processes drive our behaviour (1) based on observed behaviour, but not directly inferred (2) This can be from the use of experimental procedures.
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2. The use of theoretical and computer models- What do cognitive psychologists argue about the computer model?
Cognitive psychologists argue that the mind functions like a computer (computer analogy).
The information-processing model applies the idea of the human mind functioning like a computer. E.g. Information may enter the brain but how we respond/act depends upon how we process the information.
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2. The use of theoretical and computer models- Explain the 3 stage process of the computer model.
1. Input- We receive information from the environment via our senses e.g. sight, sound, smell etc, and this information is encoded.
2. Information processing- The information is now processed (we interpret the event). We store the information as a memory.
3. Output- The appropriate behaviour/ emotion is performed or retrieval of information occurs.
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2. The use of theoretical and computer models- Use Ellis's ABC model as an example of the computer model to explain.
In the cognitive explanation of depression, Ellis’ ABC model is an example of a computer model. ‘A’ being the activating event (input) such as the loss of a job, ‘B’ being the processing of the information (either rational or irrational beliefs) and ‘C’ being the consequence, the behaviour (output).
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2. The use of theoretical and computer models- What can theoretical models be used for?
Theoretical models are part of the assumption that the human mind is like a computer.
Models can be used to provide testable theories about mental processing and these can be studied scientifically and inferences made.
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2. The use of theoretical and computer models- Use the multi-store model as an example of the theoretical model.
- Cognitive psychologists take a behaviour and look at the processes that happen ‘behind the scenes’, they will then describe this process in a series of steps.
- One important theoretical model is the Multi-Store Model which suggests that memory has separate unitary stores, each with different coding, capacites and durations and that information flows through memory in a linear way.
- This theory has been studied scientifically, for example Miller used a controlled lab experiment to investigate the capacity of STM in which he used the digit span technique, adding one digit each time until participants could no longer recall the number.
- This experiment has been replicated many times and the findings that participants can recall 5-9 items has been found to be reliable, inferring that the capacity of STM is limited.
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3. The role of schemas- what is meant by a schema?
- Schemas are a form of internal mental processes (1).
- They are mental representations (collection of ideas).
- That are created through unique knowledge and experience (1)
- Held in our LTM and can include beliefs such as stereotypes (1)
- Schemas can change through life and become more detailed through experience (1)
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3. The role of schemas- why are they beneficial?
Schemas are beliefs that are based on past experience which can help us to predict what might happen.
Schemas help us make quick decisions, because they are a useful mental shortcut that prevents us from being overwhelmed by information from the environment.
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3. The role of schemas- why may they not be beneficial?
Schemas can cause biased recall/EWT, as we may recall what we expect to see according to our schema, rather than what we have actually witnessed.
Negative schemas may make an individual vulnerable to depression.
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AO3- What is one strength of the cognitive explanation as it is being caused by internal factors such as internal mental processes?
P- The cognitive explanation is a form of soft determinism.
E- It sees human behaviour as being caused by internal factors (internal mental processes), however, would suggest that individuals have some choice over their behaviour (unlike the biological approach which would suggest we have no choice).
E- This could be beneficial as individuals may feel more in control and feel it is possible to alter these faulty thought processes, for example in those suffering with depression,
L- making the cognitive explanation of human behaviour a more positive approach.
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AO3- What methods does the cognitive explanation of human behaviour use because researched is based on objective and empirical techniques such as brain scans?
P- The cognitive explanation of human behaviour uses scientific methods.
E- The research is based on objective and empirical techniques such as brain scan techniques and lab experiments to investigate internal mental processes and inferences, which have high control over extraneous variables.
E- This allows us to establish cause and effect between internal mental processes and behaviour.
L- Therefore, it could be argued that this increases the overall internal validity of the cognitive explanation of human behaviour, thus raising Psychology’s scientific status.
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AO3- What is a further strength of the cognitive approach because it has lead to treatments such as CBT?
P- A further strength of the cognitive explanation of human behaviour is that it has practical applications.
E- This is because the principles of the theory, that behaviour is caused by internal mental processes, has led to the treatment CBT.
E- This is effective in treating disorders such as depression by helping the individual to dispute their irrational thoughts and negative schemas.
L- Therefore, the cognitive explanation of human behaviour is an important part of applied psychology as it helps to treat people in the real world.
THINK FURTHER: This, in turn means that these people will be able to function better in everyday life, and may mean that they are able to go to and be more productive in work, increasing wages and tax payments, therefore helping to improve the economy.
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Give the assumptions of the biological approach.
* All human behaviour is at first biological, the mind lives in the brain.
* Physical factors such as our hormones, neuroanatomy, nervous system and the inheritance of genes can all explain our behaviour
* Argues that an individual’s genotype and phenotype will determine how we behave
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What is the introduction for the biological approach?
The biological approach argues that our behaviour should be studied scientifically by using research techniques such as gene mapping, fMRIs, EEGs and family/twin studies. Using these techniques we objectively (factually) study how our biology can affect our behaviour.
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What are the features of the biological approach?
1. The influence of genes on behaviour
2. The influence of biological structures on behaviour
3. The influence of neurochemistry on behaviour
4. Evolution and behaviour
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1. The influence of genes on behaviour- What does the genetic explanation argue and give an example.
The genetic explanation argues that behavioural characteristics such as intelligence, personality and mental illness are genetically inherited the same way as physical characteristics such as eye colour or height. Therefore, behaviours will run in families.
For example, the genetic explanation would argue that OCD is due to the inheritance of one or many maladaptive (undesirable) genes e.g. SERT.
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1. The influence of genes on behaviour- Concordance rates for twin studies.
The genetic explanation would argue the closer the genetic link to someone with OCD, the greater the risk a person would inherit OCD. The genetic probability of sharing a behaviour is measured by concordance rates. The higher the concordance rate found, then the stronger the evidence for a genetic basis of behaviour. This is shown in twin studies where monozygotic (identical) twins have been found to have a concordance (likelihood) of 87% compared to concordance rates of 47% for dizygotic twins (non-identical) for OCD. (Carey and Gottsman, 1981)
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1. The influence of genes on behaviour- Define genotype.
A genotype is a specific set of genes that an individual has inherited from their biological parents and is unique to them (their genetic make up). Genotypes can give a predisposition to disorders.
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1. The influence of genes on behaviour- Define phenotype.
The phenotype of an individual is the product of what happens when the genotype interacts with the environment (combination of genotype and the environment). This is how our genes are expressed through physical, behaviour and psychological characteristics, they are observable traits or behaviours shown by an individual.
For example, identical twins (same genotype/identical genes) may look slightly different perhaps because one has exercised more or has dyed hair (phenotype) which is due to their environment!
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2. The influence of biological structures on behaviour- What is a biological structure and give an example of their influence.
A biological structure is an organ, such as the brain or a system, such as the nervous system or endocrine system.
The brain is one biological structure that can influence behaviour. Abnormalities in size, shape or function in certain areas of the brain can lead to certain behaviours. For example, (you can include any example here!) the enlarged ventricles in the brain can increase the likelihood of experiencing symptoms of schizophrenia.
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3. The influence of neurochemistry on behaviour- What is a neurotransmitter and give an example of its influence.
A neurotransmitter is a chemical messenger in the brain that passes information from one synapse to the other to produce behaviour/emotion. There are a range of neurotransmitters in the brain that communicate these messages, when there is an imbalance it can cause abnormal behaviour.
An imbalance of the neurotransmitter dopamine has been linked with the development of Schizophrenia and an imbalance of serotonin has been associated with the development of depression, anxiety and OCD.
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4. Evolution and behaviour- What did Charles Darwins theory suggest.
Charles Darwin created a theory called natural selection. This theory suggests that any genetically determined behaviour that increases an individual’s chances of survival and reproduction will continue to be passed on to future generations (naturally selected) e.g. intelligence and aggression.
This process takes places ‘naturally’ – so nobody ‘decides’ what is selected. It happens because the individual who possesses certain beneficial traits will have increased chances of survival and therefore will be able to pass on the beneficial traits to their offspring (reproductive success).
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4. Evolution and behaviour- How can evolution explain aggression?
Evolution can explain a range of behaviours, for example aggression.
Being aggressive will, at some point in our ancestory, have been advantageous in terms of survival and increasing reproduction. Perhaps, because aggression would have increased their chances of gaining resources such as hunting food which would be attractive to a mate, therefore this aggressive behaviour has been naturally selected and passed on.
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4. Evolution and behaviour- What does research into the genetic basis of behaviour suggest about aggressive behaviour in males?
Research into the genetic basis of behaviour has found that one-third of men have the ‘warrior’ gene (MAOA) which has been linked to aggressive behaviour.
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AO3- What can the biological explanation of human behaviour be criticised for?
P- The biological explanation of human behaviour can be criticised for biological determinism.
E- This is because the approach states that an individual is controlled by internal factors such as genes and neurochemicals that inevitably cause behaviour
E- *EXAMPLE*. Therefore, it neglects the role of free will, and choice that individuals have; this could leave individuals feeling like they have no control over their behaviour.
L- Limiting the biological explanation of human behaviour.
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AO3- What can the biological explanation of human behaviour be criticised for?
P- Moreover, the biological explanation of human behaviour can be criticised for biological reductionism.
E- This is because the approach reduces complex human behaviour down to simple basic units for example, genes and neurochemicals.
E- (Include example here if you can). This neglects a holistic approach, which would take in to account how a person’s culture and social context would influence and explain human behaviour.
L- Therefore, the biological explanation of human behaviour may lack validity, as it does not allow us to understand the behaviour in context.
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AO3- What is a strength of the biological explanation of human behaviour? What is the counter argument to this strength?
P- A strength of the biological explanation of human behaviour is that it has practical applications.
E- The principles of the theory, that behaviour is caused by an imbalance of neurotransmitters, has been used to create treatments such as SSRI’s.
E- These have been effective in treating individual’s with disorders such as OCD and Depression by increasing serotonin activity.
L- Therefore, the biological explanation of human behaviour is an important part of applied psychology as it helps to treat people in the real world.
COUNTERPOINT: However, although SSRI’s are successful for many paitents, they do not work for everyone. Cipriani (2018) found wide variations in the effectiveness of SSRI medications – however they were still more effective than placebos. This challenges the value of the biological approach because it suggests that brain chemistry alone may not account for all cases of mental disorders
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How could the emergence of cognitive neuroscience be asked in a question?
Separate question 4-6 marks or could be included in an essay as a feature of the cognitive approach.
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Outline the explanation of cognitive neuroscience (4-6)
1. Cognitive neuroscience is scientific study of brain/neurological structures, mechanisms, processes, chemistry that are responsible for cognitive/mental/thinking processes.
2. This is a theory that has recently emerged as technology has advanced, enabling psychologists to use a number of brain imaging techniques, such as fMRI and PET scans, to investigate how brain activity might underpin mental processes (memory and mental disorders).
3. This is achieved by comparing people with a disorder to those without a disorder to identify the physical basis for cogntive processes in the brain.
4. Cognitive neuroscience believes that computer models are important in understanding how individuals think.
5. Tulving’s research is one example of Cognitive Neuroscience in action.
6. Whilst ppts completed tasks requiring the use of their episodic and semantic memory, the use of PET scans lead Tulving to discover that different parts of the LTM are located in different areas of the brain (opposite sides of the pre-frontal cortex).
