Anatomy Final Revoew Flashcards
(345 cards)
1
Q
In the rib cage how many ribs? True and false how many?
A
12 total
-7 true ribs
-3 false ribs
-2 floating
2
Q
Calcitonin is a hormone that plays an important role in calcium regulation in the blood. What does it do?
A
When the level of calcium in the blood is high, calcitonin is secreted by the thyroid gland to help lower the calcium levels
3
Q
Parathyroid hormone (PTH)
A
Does the opposite of calcitonin. When calcium levels are low, PTH is released to increase calcium level by stimulating osteoclast activity
4
Q
This is the process of blood cell formation, primarily occurs in the bone marrow. In adults this process takes place in the red bone marrow found in flat bi es and in the end of long bones
A
Hematopoiesis
5
Q
Found in the outer layers of most bones, forming the dense, hard outer shell, it makes up the diaphysis (shaft) of long bones like the femur, humerus and tibia
A
Compact bone
6
Q
This bone is dense and tightly packed, with few spaces. It provides strength for weight bearing and protects the inner spongy bone
A
Compact bone
7
Q
This bone is found inside bones, particularly in the epiphyses (ends) of the long bones like the femur and humerus. It is also present in flat bones ( such as the skull, ribs sternum) and the vertebrae
A
Spongy bone
8
Q
This bone has a porous, honeycomb like structure with trabeculae which helps reduce the bones weight while maintaining strength
A
Spongy bone
9
Q
This is the point where a muscle attaches to the stationary or less movable joint . The origin serves as the anchor point for the muscle during contraction
A
Origin
10
Q
This is the point where the muscle attaches to the more movable bone
- where the muscle contracts, the insertion moves toward the origin , causing movement at the joint
A
Insertion
11
Q
what does calcitonin do to the blood?
A
it reducesclcium in the blood
12
Q
The cell membrane, which has t tubules to help transmit electrical signals for muscle
A
sarcolemma
13
Q
what are 5 types of bones?
A
- flat bones
- long bones
- short bones
- sesamoid bones
- irregular bones
14
Q
pelvis, sternum, ribs, skull
A
flat bones
15
Q
humerus, tibia, fibula, femur
A
long bones
16
Q
carpals,tarsals
A
short bones
17
Q
sesamoid bones
A
located at tendons (inside) eg: patella
18
Q
vertebrae, clavicle,sacrum
A
irregular bones
19
Q
this bone is dense, strong, found in cortex
A
compactbone
20
Q
this is also called cancellous bone, for shock absorption, blood cells production found in epiphysis of long bones and vertebral bodies
A
spongy bone
21
Q
where does hematopoesis occur in the bones?
A
red bone marrow
22
Q
which myofilament is thick?
A
myosin
23
Q
which myofilament is thin?
A
actin
24
Q
what happens when the body senses low calcium levels in the blood?
A
they release parathyroid hormones PTH
25
what happens when the body senses low pH levels in the blood?
it increases calcium
26
role of ATP in muscle contractionor relaxation?
without ATP muscles can't contract and relax, it energizes myosin, enables movement, causes detachment and pumps calcium
27
which joint slightly moves?
cartilaginous joints
28
vertical plane that divides body into left and right section
sagittal plane
29
vertical plane that divides body into anterior and posterior sections
frontal plane (coronal)
30
horizontal plane that divides body into superior and inferior sections
transverse plane
31
what are 3 types of muscles and their characteristics?
-smooth (visceral) - involuntary
-skeletal - voluntary
-cardiac - involuntary
32
this is where two or more bones connect, allowing movement and providing support, also known as articulations
a joint
33
the cells found in cartilage tissue are called
chondrocyte
34
the lungs is --------- to the heart
lateral
35
what are the 4 types of membranes and their functions
mucus - secrete mucous to keep tissues moist and trap pathogens
serous membrane - secrete serous fluid to reduce friction between organs
cutaneous membrane - protection, temperature regulatioj and sensation
synovial membranes - secrete synovial fluid for lubrication and reducing friction in joints
36
what are the 4 types of tissue
-epithelial, connective, muscle, nervous
37
This tissue covers body surfaces and lines cavities to protect, absorb and secrete substances
epithelial
38
This tissue supports, binds and protects organs while also storingenergy and transporting substances like blood
connective tissue
39
This is often called a control center of the cell because it stores the cells genetic material DNA and coordinates activities like growth, metabolism, protein synthesis and reproduction ( cell division)
Nucleus
40
The process that produces ATP, the primary energy carrier in cells occurs mainly in the?
Mitochondria
41
These are tiny but essential structures in cells that’s are responsible for protein synthesis, they make proteins by linking amino acids together in the other specified by messenger RNA. Made of ribosomal RNA and protein
Ribosomes
42
Processes and transports protein
Endoplasmic reticulum ( rough)
43
Lipid synthesis, detoxification
Endoplasmic reticulum (smooth)
44
Packages and ships proteins/lipids
Golgi apparatus
45
This breaks down waste
Lysosomes
46
————- are small, membrane-bound organelles found in nearly all eukaryotic cells. Their main job is to break down fatty acids and detoxify harmful substances—basically, they’re like the cell’s detox center.
Peroxisomes
47
This regulates permeability, selective barrier
Cell membrane
48
This supports cell shape and movement
Cytoskeleton
49
Cannot pass easily (hydrophilic)
Polar molecules
50
Pass freely (hydrophobic )
Non polar molecules
51
Movement of substances from high to low concentration, diffusion and osmosis. No ATP ( energy) needed
Passive transport
52
Movement of substances from low to high concentration, against the concentration gradient. Requires ATP
Active transport
53
Osmosis: hypertonic solution
Cells shrink ( water leaves)
54
Cell swells (water enters)
Hypotonic solution
55
DNA replication
Interphase
56
Chromosomes form, spindle fibers appear
Prophase
57
Number of electron shells
Rows
58
Valence electrons
Columns
59
Number of protons
Atomic number
60
Sum of protons + neurons
Atomic mass
61
Shared electrons
Covalent bond
62
Transferred electrons
Ionic bond
63
Donates H+ ions
Acid
64
Accepts H+ ions
Base
65
Equal to atomic number
Protons
66
Atomic mass - protons
Neurons
67
Epidermis layers ( mnemonic : come let’s get sun burn)
Corneum, lucidum, granulosom, spinosum, basale
68
This epidermis layer is only in thick skin
Lucidum
69
Skull and ribs
Flat bones
70
Femur, tibia, phalanges, humerus
Long bone
71
Carpals and tarsals
Short
72
Vertebrae, sacrum ( part of pelvis), mandible
Irregular bone
73
Sesamoid bone
Patella
74
Hematopoesis (blood cell formation) happens in
Red marrow
75
Fat storage happens in
Yellow marrow
76
Striated and voluntary
Skeletal
77
Striated and involuntary
Cardiac
78
Non striated and involuntary
Smooth
79
Decreases angle
Flexion
80
Increases angle
Extension
81
Toward midline
Adduction
82
Away from midline
Abduction
83
Primary muscle used for shoulder extension
Latissimus dorsi
84
Contraction requires?
Calcium
85
Brain and spinal cord
CNS
86
All nerves that connect CNS to the rest of the body
PNS
87
Afferent vs efferent
Remember mnemonic SAME
Sensory = Afferent
Motor = Efferent
88
This is a tiny gap between two neurons where nerve signals are transmitted
Synapse
89
Presynaptic neuron does what?
Sends the signal
90
Postsynaptic cell does what?
Receives the signal
91
Synaptic cleft
Gap between the two cells
92
Chemicals that carry the message
Neurotransmitters
93
Dopamine
Pleasure , reward
94
Serotonin
Mood, sleep
95
————- is a neurotransmitter, a chemical messenger that transmits signals between nerve cells and muscle cells (and also between nerve cells in the brain).
Acetylcholine
96
GABA
Inhibitory ( calming)
97
Norepinephrine
Alertness
98
Rest and digest
Parasympathetic
99
Flight or flight
Sympathetic
100
Maintaining internal stability
Homeostasis
101
Regulates pH, blood pressure and filters blood
Urinary system
102
The ———— is a network of vessels, organs, and tissues that helps maintain fluid balance, filter harmful substances, absorb dietary fats, and support the body’s immune defenses.
Lymphatic system
103
Photoreceptors
Vision
104
Chemoreceptors
Smell and taste
105
Mechanoreceptors
Hearing and touch
106
U shaped bone located in the upper neck, just below the mandible and above the larynx. It does not articulate with any other bone
Hyoid bone
107
What happens when pH in blood is low
Body increases calcium to balance acidity
108
Calcium ions bind to ———- to allow myosin to interact with actin
Troponin
109
The heart is ———- to the lungs
Medial
110
Normal blood pH is?
7.35 - 7.45
111
Explain what pH is acidosis and alkalosis of blood
Acidosis - less than 7.35
Alkalosis - more than 7.45
112
A pH of 11 means the solution is basic (alkaline) and therefore it has more ———— ions
Hydroxide ions
Here’s why:
7 = neutral (equal H+ and OH-)
<7 = acidic ( more H+ hydrogen)
>7 = basic ( more OH- hydroxide)
113
These 2 organs play a critical roles in maintaining blood pH homeostasis typically between 7.35 - 7.45
Lungs and kidneys
Lungs - regulate pH by controlling the amount of CO2 in the blood
Kidneys - regulate pH by managing levels of bicarbonate ( HCO3-) and hydrogen ions ( H+)
114
This organ is responsible for insulin production and digestive enzyme secretion
Pancreas
115
————- muscle is not organized into Sacromeres
Smooth
116
The body absorbs most of the nutrients in the?
Small intestines
117
Hyperventilation causes the blood to be more?
Alkaline
118
Keratin is found in the ——-
Epidermis
119
Collagen and elastin are found in the ——-
Reticular part of the dermis ( the deepest layer of the dermis)
120
———— are sweat glands found All over the body and open directly into the skin surface
Eccrine glands
121
What is the most abundant tissue in the body
Connective tissue
122
What are chondrocytes
Cartilage tissue cells
123
The lungs is ———- to the heart
Lateral
124
Cell division into identical daughter cells that can lead to cancer
Mitosis
125
Is a passive transport of water through a semipermeable membrane ( where salt goes water goes)
Osmosis
126
This is passive transport from higher convent to lower concentration
Diffusion
127
Connect bones to joints
Ligaments
128
Connect muscle to bone
Tendons
129
What does acid taste like? What is their pH?
Sour, less than 7
130
What do bases taste like, what is their pH?
Bitter, greater than 7
131
Example of epithelial tissue
Glands
132
Electrons in the outermost shell of the atom
Valence electrons
133
Dissolve in water, produce ions and formed by atom of opposite charges
Electrolytes
134
Smallest unit of life
Cell
135
What is the outcome of dehydration synthesis
Building molecules + releasing water
136
What is the smallest particle of water
Molecule
137
When 2 charged atoms cling together to form a bond, it’s called a
Chemical bond
138
What are enzymes
Protein
139
Proteins are held together with what kind of bond?
Peptide bond
140
How many lobes in the left and right lungs
Right 3
Left 2
141
This prevents food from entering the trachea
Epiglottis
142
Process of DNA replication occurs during
Interphase
143
Which blood vessel carries deoxygenated blood to the lungs
Pulmonary artery
144
Where do finger prints come from?
Dermal papillae
145
The membrane that lines spaces that open to the the outside
Mucus membrane
146
What is the site of gas exchange
Alveoli
147
Skin layers from artificial to deep
Stratum corneum
Stratum granulosum
Papillary layer
Reticular layer
148
What are apocrine sweat glands?
Cause body odour
149
We don’t have sensory for wet and dry, only hot and cold is that true?
True
150
What type of tissue is blood
Connective
151
What are molecules that stabilize the cell membrane and prevent it from breaking easily?
Cholesterol
152
Which molecules have difficulty passing through the cell membrane via passive diffusion?
Polar molecules except water
153
Where do testosterone and estrogen come from?
Cholesterol
154
Interstitial fluid is the major part of the extracellular fluid and it is found where?
Outside the cell
155
Correct order of structures in the urinary system
Kidney - ureter- bladder- urethra
156
What cranial nerve control the airway
CN X vagus
157
What facial nerve controls facial expression
CN VII facial
158
What cranial nerve controls the eye movement?
CN III oculomotor
159
In what phase does chromatin become organized into chromosomes
Prophase
160
What prevents back flow if of blood from right ventricle to right atrium
Tricuspid valve
161
The heart is ——— to the lungs
Medial
162
Kidneys are ——— tot he peritoneum
Dorsal
163
The production of seminal fluid is in the?
Prostate
164
What is the biggest lymph organ
Spleen
165
What hormones are produced by the hypothalamus
Oxytocin and vasopressin
166
What lobe is for decision making voluntary movement and speech production
Frontal lobe
167
What lobe is for sensory perception, navigation
Parietal lobe
168
What lobe houses the hypothalamus ?
Temporal lobe
169
What lobe is for auditory processing, language comprehension
Temporal lobe
170
What lobe is for vision
Occipital lobe
171
Childbirth is what feedback loop?
Positive feedback loop
172
This hormone increased sugar in the blood, part of the sympathetic nervous syste, keeps us awake and decreases pain
Epinephrine
173
Works with calcium to regulate muscle contraction and relaxation
Magnesium
174
Is it true that magnesium antagonizes calcium action especially in muscle cells and prevents overstimulation
Yes it balances it
175
Involves oxygen, producing a large amount of ATP
Aerobic respiration
176
Occurs without oxygen, produces less ATP and results in lactic acid buildup
Anaerobic respiration
177
Type II ( fast twitch muscle fibers do what?
Generate quick, high intensity bursts of power
178
Type I (slow twitch) muscle fibers do what?
Sustain long duration, lower intensity activites
179
This muscle in the face is attached to the skin and responsible for facial expressions
Platysma
180
The body’s ability to maintain stable internal conditions despite external changes. Involves systems like thermoregulation, blood pressure and pH balance
Homeostasis
181
Low reps (1-5) with heavy weights
Strength training
182
Moderate reps (6-12) for muscle growth
Hypertrophy
183
High reps (12-20) with lighter weights
Endurance
184
What is broken down in aerobic energy pathways for prolonged exercise
Fat
185
This is a key component of the stress response. It regulates cortisol release to manage stress and inflammation
HPA Axis (hypothalamus pituitary adrenal axis)
186
Outer dead cells
Stratum corneum
187
Keratinocyte maturation
Statum spinosum
188
The deepest layer of epidermis, foundation layer where all new skin begins ( melanocyte production)
Stratum basale
189
Division of somatic cells for growth and repair
Mitosis
190
Division of sex cells (gametes) for reproduction
Meiosis
191
Equal solute concentration, no change in cell size
Isotonic solution
192
Transfer of electrons
Ionic
193
Sharing of electrons
Covalent
194
Phospholipid bilayer with proteins cholesterol and glycoprotein
Cell membrane
195
This membrane lines cavities that open to the outside ( eg; respiratory tract)
Mucous membrane
196
This membrane lines closed body cavities ( eg: pleura, peritoneum)
Serous membrane
197
Organic compounds are composed of?
Carbon and hydrogen
198
Dehydration synthesis causes smaller molecules to become?
Larger molecules
199
This is when two small molecules join to make a bigger one, and in the process they lose a water molecule
Dehydration synthesis
200
This bond forms when
- oppositely charged ions attract each other
- they easily dissolve in water
- they gain or lose electrons
Ionic bond
201
Example of a disaccharide
Sucrose
202
Phospholipids contain how many fatty acids?
Two
203
Which organ regulates the pH of the body fluids
Kidneys
204
Is facial bone part of the cranium
No
205
Example of monosaccharide
Glucose
206
Organelle protein factory is?
Ribosomes
207
What tissue can shorten and contract
Muscle tissue
208
Fluid between cells
Extracellular matrix (ECM)
209
These are supporting cells of the nervous system. These are essential for neuron function repair and support. Also known as the glue of the nervous system
Glia cells
210
Lacuna
Is fine and soft hair on newborns
211
Where is synovial membrane found?
Between joints
212
Fibrous membrane that covers the outside shaft of the long bone
Periosteum
213
2 types of cells found in the nervous system
Neurons and neuroglia ( glial cells)
214
2 impulses from brain to spinal cord
Afferent and efferent
215
These both make myelin, which insulates axons and helps nerve signals travel faster
Oligodendrocyes and schwaan cells
216
These are junctions (gaps) where neurons communicate with other neurons, muscles or glands
Synapses
217
This regulates your body’s internal balance by controlling hunger, thirst, temperature, hormones and emotional responses
Hypothalamus
218
This acts as a relay center, directing sensory and motor signals to the brain and helping with alertness and awareness
Thalamus
219
This controls vital functions like breathing, heart rate and blood pressure and manages reflexes such as coughing and swallowing
Medulla
220
This coordinates movement, maintains balance and posture and helps you learn and fine tune motor skills
Cerebellum
221
Hypothalamus and amygdala control
Emotions
222
What controls sleep cycle
Hypothalamus
223
Cerebellum and inner ear control
Balance
224
This tells your kidneys to reabsorb water instead of peeing it out. Also known as vasopressin
ADH ( anti diuretic hormone)
225
This means under the skin
Subcutaneous
226
2 body wide communication system is what?
Endocrine and nervous system
227
Neurotransmitter that acts as a natural pain killer
Endorphines
228
These are star shaped brain helpers that’s support, protect and clean. Blood brain barrier helps with filtering
Astrocytes
229
Lower part of the brain that connects to the spinal cord and is in charge of basic life functions
Brainstem
230
What part of the brain has the functionality of the endocrine gland
Hypothalamus
231
These are sensory receptors that are responsible for detecting changes in temperature
Thermoreceptors
232
What is the structure in the middle ear called?
Ossicles
233
Lacrimal gland produces
Tears
234
Suffix ending with globin
Protein
235
Suffix ending with pathy
Disease
236
Suffix ending with stomy
Artificial opening or surgical opening
237
Definition of hepato
Liver
238
Receive signal towards the cell body
Dendrites
239
Sends signals away from the cell body
Axons
240
These are immune cells of the CNS central nervous system. Think of them as the brain and spinal cords clean up crew and defenders
Microglia
241
This is a group of eye conditions that damage the optic nerve, often due to increased pressure inside the eye
Glaucoma
242
Chemical and packaging processing center
Golgi apparatus
243
This is a chemical reaction where a water molecule is used to break a bond in the larger molecule splitting it into smaller parts
Hydrolysis
244
The building blocks of protein molecules are?
Amino acids
245
———- is a fluid form of connective tissue
Blood
246
These are fibrous structures within the muscle cell
- they are made up of Sacromeres
- they are responsible for muscle contraction
Myofibril
247
The outermost layer closest to the skull
Dura matter
248
The middle layer between dura mater and pia mater
Arachnoid mater
249
The innermost layer directly attached to the surface of the spinal cord and the brain
Pia mater
250
Pnea means
Breathing
251
This refers to the creation of an artificial opening or surgical opening in a body structure
Stomy
252
The cell membrane of the myocyte. Controls entry and exit of substances and conducts action potential
Sarcolemma
253
The cytoplasm of the myocyte. Contains lots of glycogen (energy) and myoglobin (stores oxygen)
Sarcoplasm
254
Long cylindricalprotein structures inside the cell. Made of sarcomeres and composed of actin and myosin
Myofibrils
255
Repeating unit within a myofibril, found between two z lines. It’s what gives skeletal and cardiac muscle their striated (striped) appearance under a microscope
Sarcomere
256
Stores calcium ions needed for contraction. Releases calcium when the muscle is stimulated
Sarcoplasmic reticulum SR
257
Invaginations of the sarcolemma. Help conduct the action potential deep into the myocyte to trigger Contraction
T tubules
258
———- is a protein complex attached to actin in a muscle fiber. It works alongside tropomyosin to regulate muscle contraction by controlling access to lysine binding sites on actin
Troponin
259
Fuel : creatine phosphate
O2 : not required
Speed : very fast
Duration: 0-10 sec
Used for: sprinting lifting
ATP-PC (phosphagen system)
260
Fuel: glucose (from carbs)
O2: not required
Speed: fast
Duration : 10 sec- 2 min
Used for : high intensity like 400m run
Anaerobic glycolysis (lactic acid system)
261
Fuel: carbs, fats
O2 : required
Speed: slow
Duration: 2 min- hours
Used for : long duration like jogging and walking
Aerobic (oxidative system)
262
Explain cardiac action potential
Phase 0: rapid depolarization ( sodium Na+ rushes in = big spike upward)
Phase 1: small repolarization ( potassium K+ starts to leave, Na+ channels close)
Phase 2: plateau (calcium Ca2+ IN balances K+ OUT- flat line holds contraction)
Phase 3: repolarization ( K+ keeps going out , Ca2+ stops = cell resets)
Phase 4: resting (cell is chill, waiting for next signal)
263
What is HPA axis
if you get stressed
1: Hypothalamus says “ we need to act, it releases CRH)
2: The pituitary gland gets the message, it releases ACTH)
3: the Adrenal glands receive ACTH and they release cortisol- the main stress hormone
264
————- function is to package DNA, protect DNA, regulate gene expression, and help organize DNA during cell division
Chromatins
265
Tightly coiled DNA, ready to be moved or divided during cell division
Chromosomes
266
This is how strongly the nucleus pulls the electrons
Electronegativity
267
Valence and electrons
Atomic number of sodium
Na = 11
So it has 11 protons (+) and 11 electrons ( -)
Therefore its neural at first
Electrons fill shells like this
2 - 8 - 1
2 in the first shell
8 in the second shell
1 lonely electron in the third ( which is the outer shell = valence)
Sodium has 1 extra in the outer shell so it’s easier to lose 1 than gain 7
Sodium loses that 1 electron
Now it has:
11 protons (+)
10 electrons (-)
+1 charge overall
Losing electrons = oxidation ( positive ion)
Gain electrons = reduction
(Negative ion)
268
This bond forms when 2 atoms share electrons to fill their outer shells . Between 2 non metals
Covalent
( oxygen has 6 valence electrons and hydrogen has 1, they both share electrons so both can fill their outer shells
Result: H2O has a covalent bond between hydrogen and oxygen
269
———— bond forms when one atom gives up electrons and another takes them, resulting in oppositely charged ions that attract each other. Between 1 non metal and a metal
Ionic bond
Eg: NaCl
Sodium (Na) had 1 valence electron, and chlorine (Cl) had 7 valence electrons
Sodium loses its 1 electron and becomes Na+ (positive ion)
Chlorine gains the electron and becomes Cl- ( negative ion)
Na+ and Cl- attract each other, forming NaCl (table salt)
270
Membrane permeability
Small, non polar or uncharged molecules pass through easily. What are examples of permeable molecules?
O2 ( oxygen)
CO2 (carbon dioxide)
H2O ( water)
These molecules slip through the membrane easily without help and it’s called simple diffusion
271
Membrane permeability
Large, polar, or charged molecules can’t pass easily. What are examples of non permeable molecules
Glucose
Ions like Na+, K+, Cl-
Proteins
These need special channels or transport protein to get through like: facilitated diffusion or active transport ( uses ATP)
272
This is a fat like substance ( a type of lipid) made in the liver and found in your blood and cell membranes
Cholestrol
273
Functions of cholesterol
Remember CHOVB
Cells
Hormones
Osmosis
Vitamin D
Bile
274
Explain the valves of the heart
Blood enters right atrium - passes through tricuspid valve
Into right ventricle - out pulmonary valve to lungs
Returns to left atrium - through mitral valve
Into left ventricle - out aortic valve to body
275
Explain the cardiopulmonary circulation
1: deoxygenated blood comes from the body- enters the right atrium
2: then moves to the right ventricle
3: gets pumped through the pulmonary arteries - to the lungs
4: in the lungs picks up O2 and drops off CO2
5: oxygenated blood returns to the left atrium via pulmonary veins
6: then to left ventricle and pumped out of the body
276
The ————- are a group of deep brain structures . They play a crucial role in coordinating movement
Basal ganglia
277
Sensory nerve fibers are called Afferent. Why?
Because these fibers brings sensory information toward the central nervous system ( CNS) eg: touching something- signal travels toward the spinal cord and brain ( Afferent means carry information)
278
Motor nerve fibers are called efferent. Why?
Because these fibers carry motor commands away from the CNS to muscle or hands. Eg: brain tells your hand to move- signal travels away from the CNS to the hand
279
The ——— nerve is the primary motor nerve that controls the diaphragm, the main muscle responsible for breathing
Phrenic
280
The phrenic nerve which controls the diaphragm originates from?
Originates mostly from C4, with help from C3 and C5
C3,4,5, keep the diaphragm alive
281
The brainstem is in charge of voluntary or involuntary functions?
Involuntary
282
Frontal lobe
- speech production
- can’t speak properly (stuttering)
Broca’s
283
Temporal lobe
-speech comprehension
- fluent but meaningless speech
Wernicke’s
284
————— is a hormone produced by the adrenal glands, which sit on top of your kidneys, it plays a crucial role in the body’s stress response and is involved in various functions in managing metabolism and immune response
Cortisol
285
———— is extracellular, outside cells and high in the blood
Sodium (Na+)
286
———- is intracellular, inside cells, low in the blood
Potassium (K+)
287
————- increases blood sugar by promoting gluconeogenesis in the liver and inhibiting insulins effects, ensuring an energy supply during stress
Cortisol
288
Long term elevated ———- can contribute to insulin resistance and elevated blood sugar levels
Cortisol
289
The ———- generates emotional responses ( especially fear) and signals the body to act quickly
Amygdala
290
The ————— regulates and evaluates emotional responses like fear, providing impulse control and rational decision making
Frontal cortex
291
In a healthy brain, the frontal cortex ( prefrontal cortex) moderates the amygdala, ensuring ———- of emotional and behavioural responses
Balance
292
What cranial nerve controls airway
Vagus nerve (X)
293
What cranial nerve controls facial expression
Facial nerve (Vll)
294
What cranial nerve controls eye movement
Oculomotor (lll)
295
What cranial nerve controls smell
Olfactory (l)
296
What are the 2 branches of autonomic nervous system
Sympathetic (fight or flight)
Parasympathetic ( rest and digest)
297
A fatty insulating layer that wraps around axons
Myelin sheath
298
Gaps between segments of myelin
Nodes of ranvier
299
In the nervous system, myelin insulates axons to speed up signal transmission, and the nodes of ranvier are small unmyelinated gaps where the electrical signal jumps enabling ———- and ———- nerve conduction
Fast and efficient
300
Smallest unit of life
Cell
301
Are blood vessels perforated
Yes some are, especially fenestrated capillaries, with small pores to allow faster exchange of substances between blood and surrounding tissue
302
What keeps the blood inside the vessels?
The flow
303
This refers to how harmful a substance is to living organisms
Toxicity
304
This refers to the thickness or resistance to flow of a liquid
Viscosity
305
————- helps regulate critical physiological processes like nerve signaling, muscle contraction, and the vestibular system, all of which are essential for maintaining balance in the body
Electromagnetism
306
Sodium potassium pumps numbers
Blood plasma potassium = 4 ( outside the cell)
Blood plasma sodium = 145
(Outside the cell)
Intracellular potassium = 145
(Inside the cell)
Intracellular sodium = 10
(Inside the cell)
307
The CEO of the brain is
Hypothalamus
308
The hypothalamus stimulates the ————— to produce hormones
Pituitary gland
309
The hormones the hypothalamus produces and stores them in the posterior pituitary gland are?
Oxytocin
ADH- vasopressin
310
The hypothalamus serves as a critical link between the ————- and ————— system
Nervous and endocrine
311
These hormones are like messengers that activate other glands to produce their own hormones
Tropic
312
HPA axis is a negative or positive feedback loop?
Negative
313
End product of HPA axis is
Cortisol
314
Once cortisol levels rise, they then reduce the ———-activity through negative feedback
HPA axis
315
What does cortisol do to the blood
- increases blood sugar
- raises blood pressure
-suppressing inflammation
-modifying blood lipids
316
Prolonged elevated cortisol levels can cause
-weakened immunity
- cardiovascular disease
- weight gain
- muscle loss
- bone thinning
- insulin resistance
- sleep problems
- mental health issues
- digestive issues
317
————— are involuntary, striated muscle cells that contract rhythmically, communicate through intercalated discs and are packed with mitochondria to keep your heart beating nonstop
Cardiac myocyte
318
Organic compounds always contain?
Carbon (C) and (H) hydrogen
319
Inorganic compounds usually do not contain?
Carbon (C) but CO2 is an exception. So CO2 is inorganic even though it has carbon
320
What are 2 types of cells in the brain
Neuron and glial cells
321
This neurotransmitter is excitatory
- it adds positive charge to the next neuron by letting positive ions ( like Na+) in
- so we say it excites - +
( think of it as a green light)
Glutamate
322
This neurotransmitter is inhibitory
- it either lets negative ions like Cl- into the neuron or positive ions like K+ out
-this makes the inside of the neuron more negative so it’s less likely to fire
(Think of it as a red light)
GABA
323
What hormone does this?
- raises sugar
-decreases pain
- awareness
- slows down immune system
- increases red blood cells
- increases platelets
-Keeps blood pressure up so you don’t pass out under stress
Cortisol
324
Cardiac action potential
Phase 0 - depolarization
( Na+ rushes in, sodium floods in making it positive= contraction starts
Phase 1 - initial repolarization
(K+ leaves, potassium starts leaving the cell. Just a little dip
Phase 2 - plateau
(Balance, calcium comes in so the heart keeps contracting, potassium goes out. This keeps the cell charged longer so the heart squeezes properly
Phase 3 - repolarization
( potassium leaves fast, cell becomes negative again= relaxation
Phase 4 - resting
( stable, cell is ready for the next beat. Chill mode)
325
Weaker bonds are
More acidic ( easier to lose H+)
326
Stronger bonds are
Less acidic ( harder to lose H+)
327
Every reaction, no matter what muscle you’re trying to move, —————— is the first chemical that gets released to start that muscle movement
Acetylcholine
328
Cranial nerve is CNS or PNS?
PNS
329
Explain how neurotransmitters works?
- The dendrites receive a signal
- the signal goes through the soma, which processes the information
- the axon carries the signal out to the next neuron or cell
- the axon terminals send the signal to the next neuron or muscle, like delivering a message
330
When ACh binds with ——————-, it activates them, this sends a signal like making a muscle contract or a nerve fire
Nicotinic receptors
331
————- deficits can lead to a lot of brain deficits like Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s, myasthenia gravis, huntingtons disease
ACh
332
The ————- is darker in colour because it has more cell bodies ( neurons) packed together. This gives it a darker appearance due to the presence of gray matter
Brain
333
The ———— looks lighter because it had more whiter matter, myelin appears whiter and allows for faster signal transmission.
Spinal cord
334
Calcium =
Contraction
335
How does calcium contract?
Calcium binds to troponin between actin and myosin
336
————- means anything to do with adrenaline (epinephrine) and nonadrenaline (norepinephrine), the fight or flight chemicals that get you ready to act quickly , they increase heart rate, open airways so you can breathe faster and raise blood pressure
Adrenergic
337
————— means anything to do with acetylcholine. A chemical that helps the body relax and rest. It slows heart rate, helps digest, makes muscles move
Cholinergic
338
—————- pituitary makes hormones that control growth, metabolism and reproduction
Anterior
339
—————- pituatory stores and releases hormones made by the hypothalamus like oxytocin to control things like childbirth and ADH for regulating water balance
Posterior
340
The —————— is a small, pea sized organ located at the base of your brain, right behind your nose and just below the hypothalamus, it’s often called the master gland because it controls alot of the body’s important functions
Pituitary gland
341
The ————— ( also known basal ganglia) are a group of structures deep within the brain that are involved in controlling movement and regulating various motor functions
Basal nuclei
342
————- fibers are long, thread like extensions of. We’ve cells (neurons). The remain types are Afferent fibers and efferent fibers
Spinal nerve
343
What cranial nerve controls airway
Vagus nerve (X)
344
————— is a fatty layer that wraps around a nerve wire (axon), it acts like insulation in an electrical wire and makes messages travel faster.
—————- is tiny gaps between the myelin section, they’re important because the signal doesn’t crawl the whole way, it jumps from one gap to another
Eg: like a frog jumping to get to places faster
Myelin
Nodes of ranvier
345
