ap bio semester 1 exam review Flashcards
(189 cards)
1
Q
emergent property
A
result from the arrangement and interaction of parts within a system
2
Q
reductionism
A
reduction of complex systems to smaller components that are more manageable to study
3
Q
what organisms are eukaryotic cells
A
plants, animals, fungi, humans
4
Q
what organisms are prokaryotic cells
A
bacteria and archaea
5
Q
Dna is the ______________ of genes
A
substance
6
Q
Chromosomes contain most of a cell’s genetic material in the form of _________
A
DNA
7
Q
each chromosome has _____ long DNA molecule
A
one
8
Q
Each DNA molecule is made up of ____ long chains arranged in a double helix
A
two
9
Q
Each link of a chain is one of four kinds of chemical building blocks called ________
A
nucleotides
10
Q
what is a genome
A
an organism’s entire set of genetic instructions
11
Q
what is the biological medium on earth
A
water!!!!!!!!
12
Q
what type of molecule is water
A
polar
13
Q
what does polarity allow water molecules to do
A
form hydrogen bonds with each other
14
Q
4 of water’s properties?
A
-Cohesive behavior
-Ability to moderate temperature
-Expansion upon freezing
-Versatility as a solvent
15
Q
what is the specific heat of water
A
1 cal/g/degrees C
16
Q
why is water’s specific heat traced back to hydrogen bonding
A
Heat is absorbed when hydrogen bonds break
Heat is released when hydrogen bonds form
17
Q
heat of vaporization
A
heat a liquid must absorb for 1 g to be converted to gas
18
Q
why does ice float in water
A
because hydrogen bonds in ice are more “ordered,” making ice less dense
19
Q
what temp does water reach its greatest density at
A
4 degrees C
20
Q
what is a hydration shell
A
each ion is surrounded by a sphere of water molecules
21
Q
why are certain molecules are hydrophobic
A
they have relatively nonpolar bonds
22
Q
what does it mean for water to be in a dynamic state of equillibrium
A
water molecules dissociate at the same rate at which they are being reformed
23
Q
Acidic solutions have pH values _____ than 7
A
less
24
Q
Basic solutions have pH values ____ than 7
A
greater
25
how does carbon form chains
by bonding to itself
26
what are the functional groups (practice formulas on paper)
hydroxyl
carboxyl
amino
phosphate
carbonyl
methyl
sulfhydryl
27
macromolecules
large molecules composed of smaller ones
28
polymer
long molecule consisting of smaller building blocks--> monomers
29
monomers
make up polymers, specific monomers make up macromolecules
amino acids are the monomers that make up proteins
30
dehydration synthesis (look at diagrams)
chemical reaction that involves the loss of water from the reacting molecule or ion
allows for monomers to form larger molecules
31
hydrolysis (look at diagrams)
a compound is broken down into simpler compounds, and is accompanied by the chemical incorporation of water
allows polymers to disassemble
32
what are the 4 macromolecules
carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids
33
what are carbohydrates
serve as fuel and building material
includes sugars and their polymers (mono, di, and polysaccharides)
34
monosaccharide
simple sugar, may be linear, can form rings
35
disaccharide
sugar that contains 2 monosaccharides, joined by glycosidic linkage
36
polysaccharide
sugar that consists of multiple monosaccharides, ex starch, glycogen, cellulose, chitin
37
Sugars
consist of mono, di, and poly saccharides, used for fuel, converted into organic molecules
38
starch
storage polysaccharide, polymer of sugar, consists of glucose monomers, major storage form of glucose in plants
39
glycogen
storage polysaccharide, consists of glucose monomers, major storage form of glucose in animals
40
cellulose
structural polysaccharide polymer of glucose
major component of tough walls that enclose plants
held together by hydrogen bonds, difficult to digest
cows have microbes in stomach to facilitate process
41
chitin
structural polysaccharide
found in exoskeleton of arthropods
used as surgical threads
42
lipids
diverse group of hydrophobic molecules
only class of biological molecules that DONT consist of polymers
share common trait of being hydrophobic
43
fats
is a lipid
constructed from 2 types of smaller molecules
- single glycerol and 3 fatty acids
2 types
44
fatty acid
organic acids with long carbon chain
45
saturated fatty acid
butter
max number of hydrogen atoms
no double bonds
46
unsaturated fatty acids
multiple hydrogen bonds
double bonds cause bending
47
phospholipid
2 fatty acids
polar head (hydrophilic)
fatty acid tail (hydrophobic)
bilayer arrangement in cell membrane
48
steroids
lipids
carbon skeleton
4 fused rings
contains cholesterol
- found in cell membranes
-precursor for hormones
49
proteins
enzyme
acts as catalyst
speeds up chemical reactions
polymer of amino acids
50
amino acids
monomer of protein
contains alpha carbon, r-group, and amino and carboxyl function groups
covalently bonded called peptide bonding
51
polypeptide
polymer (chains) of amino acids with peptide bonds
hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen make up polypeptide backbone
52
structures of proteins
primary, secondary, tertiary, quaternary
determines function
53
primary structure
unique sequence of amino acids in polypeptide
AA end and carboxyl end
54
secondary structure
hydrogen bonded
folding and coiling of polypeptide into repeating configuration
a (alpha) helix
B (beta) pleated sheet
55
tertiary structure
hydrogen bonded
3 dimensional shape of polypeptide
results from interactions between amino acids and R group
hydrophobic interactions and van der waals
disulfide bridge
hydrogen bonds and ionic bonds
56
quaternary structure
overall protein structure that results from aggregation of 2+ polypeptide subunits
contains amino acid subunits
57
protein configuration
depends on physical and chemical conditions of proteins environment
58
protein configuration
depends on physical and chemical conditions of proteins environment
- temp, pH
59
denaturation
protein unravels and loses it native conformation
60
chaperonins
protein molecules that assist in proper folding of other proteins
61
nucleic acids
store and transfer hereditary info
contains genes
program amino acid sequence of polypeptides
made of nucleotide sequences on DNA
- DNA
-RNA
62
DNA
stores info for synthesis of specific proteins
found in cell nucleus
directs RNA synthesis (transcription)
directs protein synthesis through RNA (translation)
63
structure of nucleic acids
exist as polymers--> polynucleotides
64
polynucleotides
consist of monomers called nucleotides
65
nucleotides
sugar and phosphate and nitrogenous base
66
nucleotide monomers
made up of nucleotides
- sugar base and phosphate groups
deoxyribose- sugar in DNA
ribose- sugar in RNA
DNA (nitrogen base)
- C-G and T-A
RNA (nitrogen base)
-C-G and U-A
67
purines
double ring
(A,G)
68
pyrimidine
single ring
(C,T,U)
69
purine must always be with ___
pyrimidine
70
nucleotide polymer
made up of nucleotides linked by OH on 3' carbon of one nucleotide and phosphate on 5' carbon
71
DNA double helix
cellular DNA molecules
2 polynucleotides spiral around imaginary axis-> forms double helix
consists of 2 antiparallel nucleotide strands
sugar phosphate backbone
base pair joined by hydrogen bonding
72
base pairing
nitrogenous bases found in DNA
form hydrogen bonds in complementary fashion
adenine (A) and thymine (T)
cytosine (C) and guanine (G)
73
ester bond
the bond between an alcohol group (-OH) and a carboxylic acid group (-COOH), formed by the elimination of a molecule of water (H2O)
74
fibrous proteins
made up of polypeptide chains that are elongated and fibrous in nature or have a sheet like structure
75
globular proteins
spherical proteins, one of the common protein types, somewhat water-soluble
76
light microscope
visible light passes through a specimen and then through glass lenses, which magnify the image
cant see organelles
77
eukaryotes
differentiated cells
protists, fungi, animals, plants
78
prokaryotes
single cell, no nucleus
archae, bacteria
79
similarites between eukaryotes and prokaryotes
plasma membrane, semifluid substance (cytosol), chromosomes, ribosomes
80
differences between eukaryotes and prokaryotes
prokaryotes- no nucleus, DNA in unbound region (nucleoid), no membrane bound organelles, cytoplasm bound by plasma membrane
eukaryotes- DNA in nucleus bounded by membranous nuclear envelope, membrane bound organelles, cytoplasm in region between plasma membrane and nucleus, larger than prokaryotes
81
plasma membrane
- selective barrier that allows sufficient passage of oxygen, nutrients, and waste to service volume of every cell
- general structure is double layer of phospholipids
- 4 ring carbon and cholesterol
82
limits to cell size
cells have greater surface area relative to volume
metabolism sets limits
83
what do eukaryotes have that partitions cell into organelles
internal membranes
84
what are the eukaryotic organelles
nucleus, nuclear lamina, chromatin, chromosomes, nucleolus, ribosomes, endomembrane system, mitochondria, chloroplasts, peroxisomes, mitochondria, chloroplasts, cytoskeleton
85
nucleus functions
1) houses genetic material
2) most conspicuous organelles
3) nuclear envelope
4) nuclear membrane
5) pores
86
nuclear envelope
encloses nucleus separating from cytoplasm
87
nuclear membrane
double membrane, all consists of lipid bilayer
88
nuclear pores
regulate entry and exit of molecules from nucleus
89
nuclear lamina
maintains shape of nucleus, composed of protein (lamin)
90
chromatin
DNA and proteins form genetic materials
91
chromosomes
condensed chromatin
92
nucleolus
located within nucleus
contains ribosomes
site of ribosomal RNA synthesis
carries out protein synthesis
found in both eukaryotes and prokaryotes
93
nucleolus protein synthesis
in cytosol--> free ribosomes
outside of endoplasmic reticulum or nuclear envelope--> bound ribosomes
94
endomembrane system
regulates protein traffic and performs metabolic functions in cell
contains
- nuclear envelope
- endoplasmic reticulum
- golgi apparatus
- lysosomes
- vacuoles
- plasma membrane
all are either continuous or connected via transfer by vesicles
95
endoplasmic reticulum
accounts for more than half of total membrane in eukaryotic cells
continuous with membrane
2 regions- smooth and rough ER
plants and animals, not bacteria
96
smooth ER
lacks ribosomes
synthesizes lipids
metabolizes carbohydrates
detoxifies poison
stores calcium
97
rough ER
ribosomes studding surface
bound ribosomes secrete glycoproteins
distribute transport vesicles (proteins surrounded by membrane)
membrane factory for cell
98
glycoprotein
on outside of plasma membrane, compromise protein and carbohydrate chains, membrane carbohydrates covalently bonded to proteins
99
golgi apparatus
shipping and receiving center
consists of cisternae
modifies products of ER
manufactures certain macromolecules
sorts and packages materials into transport vesicles
100
cisternae
flattened membranous sacs
entire thing is the golgi
101
lysosomes
membranous sac of hydrolytic enzymes that digest macromolecules
digestive compartments
endures phagocytosis and autophagy
102
what do the enzymes do in lysosomes
hydrolyze proteins, fats, polysaccharides, and nucleic acids
103
phagocytosis
cells can engulf another and forms food vacuoles
fuses with food vacuoles and digests molecule
104
autophagy
uses enzymes to recycle cells organelles macromolecules
105
vacuoles
diverse maintenance compartment
- contractile vacuole
- food vacuole
- central vacuole
106
contractile vacuole
found in freshwater protists
pump excess water out of cells
107
food vacuole
formed by phagocytosis
108
central vacuole
found in many mature plant cells
hold organic compounds and water
109
metabolic activity group
mitochondria, chloroplast, peroxisome, cytoskeleton
110
mitochondria
sites of cellular respiration that generates ATP
in eukaryotic cells
contains cristae
mitochondrial matrix and intermembrane space
111
cristae
smooth outer and inner mitochondrial membrane folded together
presents large surface area for enzymes to synthesize proteins
112
mitochondrial matrix and intermembrane space
inner membrane creates 2 compartments
mitochondrial matrix catalyzes metabolic steps of CR
113
chloroplast
found in plants and algae (plants and other green organs)
sites of photosynthesis
belongs to plastids (organelle family)
contains chlorophyll (green pigment)
contains enzymes and other molecules functioning in photosynthesis
thylakoids for structure
114
thylakoids
membranous stacks that form granum and stroma (internal fluid)
115
peroxisomes
oxidative organelle
specialized metabolic compartments bounded by single membrane
produce hydrogen peroxide and convert to water
oxygen is used to break down different types of molecules
116
mitochondria and chloroplast structure
change energy to form to another
not part of endomembrane system
double membrane
contain proteins made by free ribosomes
contain own DNA
117
cytoskeleton
network of fibers extending throughout cytoplasm
organizes cell structure and activity, anchors organelles
- microtubules
- microfilaments
- intermediate filaments
supports cells, maintains shape
interacts with moto proteins (mobility)
may regulate biochemical activities
vesicles travel along 'monorail' provided by cytoskeleton
118
microtubule
thicket component
119
microfillament
thinnest component
120
intermediate
fibers w diameters in a middle
121
microtubules
shape cell
guide movement of organelles
separates chromosomes during cell division
contains centrosomes and centrioles
contains cilia and flagella
122
centrosomes and centrioles
microtubules grow out from centrosome, near nucleus
centrosome is microtubule- organizing center
animal cells
- centrosome has pair of centrioles
123
cilia and flagella
microtubules control beating of cilia and flagella (locomotor appendages of cells)
share common ultrastructure
124
cilia and flagella ultrastructure
core of microtubules sheathed by plasma membrane
basal body anchors cilium or flagella
motor protein (dynein) drives bending movements of cilia or flagellum
125
microfilaments (actin filaments)
built as twisted double chain of actin subunits
bears tension, resists pulling forces in cell
forms 3D network (cortex) inside plasma membrane
- helps support cell shape
bundles of microfilaments make up core of microvilli intestinal cells
function in cell mobility and contain myosin protein (also actin)
muscles cells have thousands of actin filaments arranged parallel to one another
thicker filaments compose of myosin interdigitate with thinner actin fibers
localized contraction brought about by actin and myosin
-drives amoeboid movement
126
pseudopodia
cellular extensions
extend and contract through reversible assembly and contraction of actin subunits into microfilaments
127
cytoplasmic streaming
circular flow of cytoplasm within cell
streaming speeds distribution of materials within cell
plant cell
- actin- myosin interactions and sol-gel transformations drive cytoplasmic streaming
128
cell walls of plants
extracellular structure that distributes plant cells from animal cells
prokaryotes, fungi, some protists
protects plant cell, maintains shape, prevents excessive water uptake
make of cellulose fibers embedded in polysaccharides and proteins
129
how many layers do cell walls have
3
130
plasmodesmata
channels between adjacent plant cells
131
name major components of cell membrane
glycoproteins, glycolipids, phospholipid bilayer, cholesterol, cytoskeleton filaments, integral membrane proteins, peripheral membrane proteins, carbohydrates, fibers of extracellular matrix
132
glycolipid
on extracellular surface of cell membrane, membrane carbohydrates covalently bonded to lipids
133
cholesterol
in between phospholipids, stabilizes cell membrane
134
cytoskeleton filaments
in the cytoplasmic side of membrane, give cell shape and organize cell parts
135
integral membrane proteins
within bilayer membranes, penetrates hydrophobic core, helps move molecules across membrane
136
peripheral membrane proteins
bound to surface of membrane, helps in communication, support, and molecule transfer
137
carbohydrates (in the membrane)
present on extracellular side of membrane (exterior), attached to proteins and form glycoproteins
138
extracellular matrix fibers
fills space between cells, in extracellular side of membrane (exterior), helps cell attach and communicate with cells
139
transmembrane protein
integral proteins that span the membrane
140
carrier protein
transport protein that binds to molecules and change shape to shuttle them across the membrane, undergo subtle change in shape that translocates the solute-binding site across the membrane
141
transport protein
allow passage of hydrophilic substances across the membrane, specific for substance it moves, can move solutes against their concentration gradient
142
integrin protein
mediate interactions between cytoskeleton and extracellular matrix
143
aquaporins
channel proteins that facilitate the passage of water (facilitated diffusion of water)
144
channel protein
type of transport protein has hydrophilic channel that certain molecules or ions can useas a tunnel
145
what does cholesterol do in animal cells
restrains movement at warmer temperatures and maintains fluidity by preventing tight packing at cooler temperatures
146
6 functions of membrane proteins
transport
enzymatic activity
signal transduction
cell-cell recognition
intercellular joining
attachment to cytoskeleton and extracellular matrix
147
how can a hydrophobic (nonpolar) molecule pass through the cell membrane
can dissolve in the lipid bilayer and pass through membrane rapidly
148
how can a hydrophilic (polar) molecule pass through the cell membrane
don't cross through membrane easily, use facilitated diffusion (carrier and channel proteins) (EX. sugar)
149
how can ions pass through cell membrane
facilitated diffusion (carrier and channel proteins and ion channels)
150
how can small molecules pass through cell membrane
enter or leave cell through lipid bilayer or by transport proteins
151
how can large molecules pass through cell membrane
endocytosis and bulk transport via vesicles
152
what can monosaccharides pass through cell membrane
diffusion down the concentration gradient
153
how do carbon dioxide and oxygen cross cell membrane
diffusion, moving from area of high concentration to low concentration
154
how does K+ move across cell membrane
sodium-pump
155
how does amino acids and starch cross cell membrane
facilitated diffusion and carrier and channel proteins
156
active transport
moves substances against their concentration gradient requires energy (ATP) performed by specific proteins embedded in membranes
allows cells to maintain concentration gradients that differ from their surroundings
157
sodium-potassium pump
type of active transport system
major electrogenic pump of animal cells
PROCESS
1) cytoplasmic Na+ binds to sodium potassium pump
2) Na+ binding stimulates phosphorylation by ATP
3) phosphorylation causes protein to change its shape expelling Na+ to the outside
4) K+ binds on extracellular side and triggers release of phosphate group
5) loss of phosphate group restores protein's original shape
6) K+ is released and cycle starts over
158
passive transport
diffusion of a substance across a biological membrane with no energy required from the cell to make it happen
159
diffusion
net movement of molecules from a higher area of concentration to an area of lower concentration (even spreading of molecules)
160
facilitated diffusion
transport proteins speed the passive movement of molecules across plasma membrane
161
osmosis
diffusion of water across selectively permeable membrane
162
pinocytosis
active transport, type of endocytosis, molecules are taken up when extracellular fluid is "gulped" into tiny vesicles (cellular drinking)
163
phagocytosis
active transport, type of endocytosis, cell engulfs a particle in a vacuole (cellular eating), vacuole fuses with lysosome to digest particle
164
3 types of endocytosis
pinocytosis, phagocytosis, receptor-mediated endocytosis
165
endocytosis
active transport
cell takes in macromolecules by forming vesicles from plasma membrane, reversal of exocytosis
166
exocytosis
active transport
transport vesicles migrate to the membrane, fuse with it, and release their contents, used by secretory cells to export their products
167
isotonic
solute concentration is the same as that inside the cell; no net water movement across cell membrane
168
hypotonic solution
solute concentration is less than that inside the cell; cell gains water
169
hypertonic solution
solute concentration is greater than that inside the cell; cell loses water
170
osmoregulation
the control of water balance, is a necessary adaptation for life in such environments
171
amphipathic
molecule that contains both hydrophobic (nonpolar) and hydrophilic (polar) parts
172
receptor- mediated endocytosis
binding of ligands to receptors triggers vesicle formation
173
ligand
any molecule that binds specifically to a receptor site of another molecule
174
how does bulk transport occur
endocytosis and exocytosis
175
cotransport
occurs when active transport of a solute indirectly drives transport of another solute
176
electrogenic pump
a transport protein that generates voltage across a membrane
177
proton pump
main electrogenic pump of plants, bacteria, and fungi
178
electrochemical gradient
two combined forces drive diffusion of ions across membranes
chemical and electrical force
179
chemical force
the ion's concentration gradient
180
electrical force
the effect of the membrane potential on the ion's movement
181
membrane potential
voltage difference across a membrane
182
why is facilitated diffusion passive
the solute moves down the concentration gradient
183
ion channel
channel protein that open or close in response to a stimulus (gated channel)
184
plasmolysis
in hypertonic environment plant cells lose water, membrane pulls away from wall, death to plant
185
what do cell walls help to maintain
water balance
186
turgid
plant cell in hypotonic solution (ideal) swells until the wall opposes uptake, causes cell to become firm
187
flaccid
plant cell and surroundings in isotonic solution with no net movement of water into cell, plant becomes limp and may wilt
188
what problems do hypertonic and hypotonic solutions create
osmotic
189
tonicity
the ability of a solution to cause a cell to lose or gain water
