AP Psych: Unit 1 Flashcards
Vocab words from Unit 1 of AP Psychology, (153 cards)
1
Q
Evolutionary Perspective
A
Perspective in psychology that examines human behavior and cognition through the lens of evolutionary biology
2
Q
Environment
A
External factors that influence an individual’s development, including their behaviors, beliefs, and emotions.
3
Q
Nature
A
Genetic influences on human traits and behaviors.
4
Q
Nature vs Nurture
A
Debate on the extent that our genetics or our environment effects our development.
5
Q
Nurture
A
Environmental variable that impact our impact human development after birth.
6
Q
Heredity
A
The genetic factors that are passed down from biological parents to their child.
7
Q
Eugenics
A
The study of or belief in the possibility of improving the qualities of the human species.
8
Q
Natural Selection
A
The principle that among the range of inherited trait variations, those that lead to increased reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations.
9
Q
Nervous System
A
The body’s control system which is split into two parts, the central and peripheral nervous system.
10
Q
Central Nervous System
A
Consists of the brain and spinal cord, and is responsible for processing information received from all parts of the body. CNS.
11
Q
Peripheral Nervous System
A
The network of nerves and ganglia connecting the CNS to the rest of the body. PNS.
12
Q
Autonomic Nervous System
A
Automatically regulates involuntary bodily processes such as heart rate. ANS.
13
Q
Sympathetic Nervous System
A
Prepares the body for action and stress(fight or flight).
14
Q
Parasympathetics Nervous System
A
Calms the body and helps conserve energy.
15
Q
Somatic Nervous System
A
Carries Sensory information from sensory organs to the CNS and relays motor(movement) commands to muscles; control voluntary movement. SNS.
16
Q
Neurons
A
A specialized nerve cell that transmits electrical and chemical signals to other cells, enabling communication within the nervous system.
17
Q
Glial Cells
A
Cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons.
18
Q
Reflex Arc
A
In the spinal cord; demonstrates how neurons within the central and peripheral nervous systems work together to respond to stimuli. Three types of neurons work together: sensory, motor, and interneurons.
19
Q
Sensory Neurons
A
Neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord.
20
Q
Motor Neurons
A
Neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands.
21
Q
Interneurons
A
Neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs.
22
Q
All-or-Nothing Principle
A
Once action potential reaches threshold, either fires or doesn’t.
23
Q
Depolarization
A
When there’s a shift in a neuron’s electrical charge that allows an action potential (nerve impulse) to occur.
24
Q
Reuptake
A
A neurotransmitter’s reabsorption by the sending neuron.
25
Multiple Sclerosis
A chronic disease of the central nervous system marked by damage to the myelin sheath. Plaques occur in the brain and spinal cord causing tremor, weakness, incoordination, paresthesia, and disturbances in vision and speech.
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Excitatory Neurotransmitters
Chemicals released from the terminal buttons of a neuron that provoke the next neuron into firing.
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Dopamine
A neurotransmitter associated with movement, attention and learning and the brain's pleasure and reward system.
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Norepinephrine
A neurotransmitter involved in arousal, as well as in learning and mood regulation.
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GABA
A major inhibitory neurotransmitter; regulates sleep and wake cycles.
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Substance P
A neurotransmitter that is involved in the transmission of pain messages to the brain.
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Hormones
Chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues.
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Leptin
A hormone produced by adipose (fat) cells that acts as a satiety factor in regulating appetite.
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Melatonin
A hormone manufactured by the pineal gland that produces sleepiness.
34
Refractory Period
The time following an action potential during which a new action potential cannot be initiated.
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Resting Potential
The electrical charge difference across a neuron's membrane when it's not firing or transmitting a signal.
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Threshold
The minimum level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse.
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Myasthenia Gravis
A chronic autoimmune disease that affects the neuromuscular junction and produces serious weakness of voluntary muscles.
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Inhibitory Neurotransmitters
Chemicals released from the terminal buttons of a neuron that prevent the next neuron from firing.
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Serotonin
Affects mood, hunger, sleep and arousal. Undersupply linked to depression.
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Glutamate
A major excitatory neurotransmitter; involved in memory.
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Endorphins
Natural, opiate like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure.
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Acetylcholine
Enables muscle action, learning, and memory
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Ghrelin
A hunger-arousing hormone secreted by an empty stomach.
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Oxytocin
A hormone released by the posterior pituitary that stimulates uterine contractions during childbirth and milk ejection during breastfeeding.
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Psychoactive Drugs
Chemicals that affect the nervous system and result in altered consciousness.
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Antagonist
These drugs block the actions of neurotransmitters.
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Agonist
A molecule that, by binding to a receptor site, stimulates a response.
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Reuptake Inhibitor
Drugs that interfere with the reuptake of neurotransmitters in the synapse so that a greater amount remains in the synapse.
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Depressants
drugs that reduce neural activity and slow body functions.
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Stimulants
Drugs that excite neural activity and speed up body functions.
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Hallucinogens
Psychedelic drugs, such as LSD, that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input.
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Opioids
Synthetic opiates that are prescribed for pain relief.
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Caffeine
A mild stimulant found in coffee, tea, and several other plant-based substances.
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Alcohol
A depressant.
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Cocaine
A powerful and addictive stimulant, derived from the coca plant, producing temporarily increased alertness and euphoria.
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Marijuana
A drug, often smoked, whose effects include euphoria, impairment of judgment and concentration and occasionally hallucinations; rarely reported as addictive.
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Heroine
Narcotic drug derived from opium that is extremely addictive.
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Addiction
Compulsive drug craving and use, despite adverse consequences.
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Tolerance
The diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug, requiring the user to take larger and larger doses before experiencing the drug's effect.
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Withdrawal
The discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing the use of an addictive drug.
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Brain Plasticity
The brain's ability to reorganize and adapt its structure and function throughout life, particularly in response to experience or injury.
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EEG
A method of studying brain waves by recording the electrical activity of the brain using electrodes placed on the scalp. Used often for sleep studies, research, and clinical diagnosis.
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fMRI
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging, a neuroimaging technique used to study brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow. Main use is to visualize brain function and identify which areas are involved in various cognitive processes, like memory or emotion.
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Lesions
The loss or destruction of brain tissue, either natural or experimental, that can have significant behavioral and cognitive consequences.
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Brain Stem
Connection to spinal cord. Filters information flow between peripheral nervous system and the rest of the brain.
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Medulla (Oblongata)
The base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing.
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Reticular Activating System
Located in the upper brain stem; responsible for maintenance of consciousness, specifically one's level of arousal.
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Cerebellum
The "little brain" at the rear of the brainstem; functions include processing sensory input and coordinating movement output and balance.
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Cerebral Cortex
The intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information-processing center.
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Limbic System
Neural system located below the cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions and drives.
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Thalamus
The brain's sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla.
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Hypothalamus
A neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward.
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Pituitary Gland
The endocrine system's most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands.
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Hippocampus
A neural center located in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage.
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Amygdala
A limbic system structure involved in memory and emotion, particularly fear and aggression.
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Corpus Callosum
The large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them.
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Broca's Area
A region in the frontal lobe, primarily in the left hemisphere, crucial for language production and speech formulation.
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Wernicke's Area
A brain region crucial for language comprehension and processing.
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Cortex Specialization
The concept that different regions of the brain's cerebral cortex are dedicated to processing specific types of information or performing particular cognitive functions.
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Contralateral Hemispheric Organization
The principle that the right side of the brain primarily controls the left side of the body, and the left side of the brain primarily controls the right side of the body.
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Aphasia
A language disorder caused by brain damage, usually in the left hemisphere, that affects an individual's ability to communicate effectively through speech, writing, and understanding both spoken and written language.
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Occipital Lobe
Regions of the cerebral cortex - at the back of the brain - important for vision.
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Temporal Lobe
Portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; includes the auditory areas, each receiving information primarily from the opposite ear.
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Parietal Lobe
Portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; receives sensory input for touch and body position.
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Somatosensory Cortex
Area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations.
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Frontal Lobe
The portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgments.
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Prefrontal Cortex
Part of frontal lobe responsible for thinking, planning, and language.
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Motor Cortex
An area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements.
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Consciousness
Our awareness of ourselves and our environment.
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Circadian Rhythm
The biological clock; regular bodily rhythms that occur on a 24-hour cycle.
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Jet Lag
A period of discomfort and inefficiency while your internal clock is out of phase with your new surroundings.
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EEG Patterns
The visual representation of the brain's electrical activity, which is categorized into four main types: alpha, beta, theta, and delta waves. These waves, differing in frequency (speed) and amplitude (intensity), reflect various states of consciousness, from deep sleep to wakefulness.
93
NREM
The stages of sleep that are not REM sleep. These stages are characterized by progressively deeper sleep, with distinct brainwave patterns and physiological changes as you move from light sleep (Stage 1) to deep sleep (Stage 3).
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Hypnagogic Sensations
Hallucinations that occur as a person is falling asleep, during the transitional period between wakefulness and sleep (sensation of falling).
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REM
A stage of sleep characterized by rapid eye movements and a high level of brain activity.
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REM Rebound
Increased amounts of REM sleep after being deprived of REM sleep on earlier nights.
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Activation Synthesis Theory
A theory of dreaming; this theory proposes that the brain tries to make sense of random brain activity that occurs during sleep by synthesizing the activity with stored memories.
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Consolidation Theory
Sleep aids in the consolidation or formation of memories and learning.
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Insomnia
Recurring problems in falling or staying asleep.
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Narcolepsy
A sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks. The sufferer may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune times.
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REM Sleep Behavior Disorder
A neurological disorder in which the person does not become paralyzed during REM sleep and thus acts out dreams.
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Sleep Apnea
A sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings.
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Somnambulism
Sleepwalking.
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Sensation
The process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment.
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Absolute Threshold
The minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time.
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Just-Noticeable Difference
Difference in stimuli required to detect a difference between the stimuli.
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Weber's Law
The principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (rather than a constant amount).
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Sensory Adaptation
Diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation.
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Sensory Interaction
The principle that one sense may influence another, as when the smell of food influences its taste.
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Synesthesia
Describing one kind of sensation in terms of another ("a loud color", "a sweet sound").
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Retina
The light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information.
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Blind Spot
The point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a spot where no receptor cells are located.
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Visual Nerve
Carries the visual impulse out the back of the eye and into the brain for further processing.
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Lens
The transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina.
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Accomodation
The process by which the eye's lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina.
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Nearsightedness
A condition in which nearby objects are seen more clearly than distant objects because distant objects focus in front of the retina.
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Farsightedness
A condition in which faraway objects are seen more clearly than near objects because the image of near objects is focused behind the retina.
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Fovea
The small, central part of the retina, specifically the area with the highest concentration of cones.
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Photoreceptors
Specialized light-sensitive neurons in the retina that convert light into neural impulses; includes rods and cones.
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Transduction
Conversion of one form of energy into another. In sensation, the transforming of stimulus energies, such as sights, sounds, and smells, into neural impulses our brains can interpret.
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Rods
Retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones don't respond.
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Cones
Retinal receptor cells that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions. The cones detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations.
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Trichromatic Theory
Theory of color vision that proposes three types of cones: red, blue, and green.
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Opponent-Process Theory
The theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable color vision. For example, some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red; others are stimulated by red and inhibited by green.
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Afterimages
Images that occur when a visual sensation persists for a brief time even after the original stimulus is removed.
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Ganglion Cells
In the retina, the specialized neurons that connect to the bipolar cells; the bundled axons of these cells form the optic nerve.
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Dichromatism
Partial color blindness in which the eye contains only two types of cone photopigment instead of the typical three.
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Monochromatism
Partial color blindness in which the eye contains only one type of cone photopigment instead of the typical three.
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Prosopagnosia
Inability to recognize faces.
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Blindsight
A condition in which a person can respond to a visual stimulus without consciously experiencing it.
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Wavelengths
The distance from the peak of one light or sound wave to the peak of the next.
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Amplitude
The intensity or amount of energy of a wave, reflected in the height of the wave; determines a sound's loudness.
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Place Theory
In hearing, the theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea's membrane is stimulated.
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Volley Theory
A theory that proposes that our brain decodes pitch by noticing the frequency at which groups of hair cells on the basilar membrane are firing.
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Frequency Theory
A theory of pitch perception that states that the pitch we hear is determined by the frequency of sound waves, with higher frequencies resulting in higher pitches.
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Conduction Deafness
An inability to hear resulting from damage to structures of the middle or inner ear.
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Sensorineural Deafness
Deafness that results from damage to the auditory nerve.
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Sound Localization
The process by which the location of sound is determined.
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Olfactory System
The sensory system for smell.
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Thalamus (Sensation)
For all senses except olfaction, the information from the sensory neurons necessarily passes through this before reaching the primary sensory cortex.
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Pheromones
Chemical signals released by an animal that communicate information and affect the behavior of other animals of the same species.
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Gustation
Sense of taste.
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Taste Receptors
Chemical receptors on the tongue that decode molecules of food or drink to identify them.
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Umami
The fifth basic taste sensation, often described as savory or meaty.
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Oleogustus
The taste of fat.
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Supertasters
People with heightened sensitivity to all tastes and mouth sensations.
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Medium Tasters
50% of people have this level of taste sensitivity.
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Nontasters
People who cannot detect bitter compounds except at very high concentrations.
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Gate Control Theory
The theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological entrance that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain. The door is opened by the activity of pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers and is closed by activity in larger fibers or by information coming from the brain.
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Phantom Limb Sensation
Perceived sensation, following amputation of a limb, that the limb still exists.
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Vestibular Sense
The sense of body movement and position, including the sense of balance
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Kinesthesis
The system for sensing the position and movement of individual body parts.
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Semicircular Canals
Three canals within the inner ear that contain specialized receptor cells that generate nerve impulses with body movement.
