Approaches Flashcards
(212 cards)
1
Q
What is the definition of Psychology?
A
The scientific study of the human mind and its functions, especially those functions affecting behaviour in a given context.
2
Q
What is the definition of Science?
A
A means of acquiring knowledge through systematic and objective investigation. The aim is to discover general laws.
3
Q
What does Introspection refer to?
A
The first systematic experimental attempt to study the mind by breaking up conscious awareness into basic structures of thoughts, images, and sensations.
4
Q
Who is considered the father of Psychology?
A
Wilhelm Wundt.
5
Q
In what year did Wundt establish the first Psychology laboratory?
A
1879.
6
Q
What was the main objective Wundt aimed to achieve in his experiments?
A
To document and describe the nature of human consciousness.
7
Q
What method did Wundt develop for studying mental processes?
A
Introspection.
8
Q
What two main components did introspection analyze?
A
- Physical sensations
- Emotional feelings
9
Q
What is structuralism in the context of Wundt’s work?
A
Isolating the structure of consciousness by breaking it down into its component parts.
10
Q
What were participants in Wundt’s studies presented with?
A
Carefully controlled stimuli such as visual images or auditory tones.
11
Q
What is a paradigm in psychology?
A
A well-established, largely globally-accepted theory which has been agreed upon for a long time.
12
Q
True or False: Introspection was considered a scientific method by many psychologists.
A
False.
13
Q
What did Watson criticize about introspection?
A
It was not objective and varied from person to person.
14
Q
What is Falsifiability?
A
The ability to test whether a theory is right or wrong.
15
Q
What is Objectivity in scientific research?
A
Based on fact/can be observed.
16
Q
What is Reliability/replicability?
A
Using the same standardised procedure and/or gaining similar results.
17
Q
What is Empiricism?
A
Gaining measurable/ objective data from a test.
18
Q
What did Wundt claim about introspection’s reliability?
A
With sufficient training, introspection can be used to systematically observe mental processes.
19
Q
What is the independent variable (IV) in Mary’s caffeine experiment?
A
Drinking energy drink or water.
20
Q
What is the dependent variable (DV) in Mary’s caffeine experiment?
A
Remembering what they had for lunch 4 days ago.
21
Q
What type of experimental design did Mary use?
A
Independent groups design.
22
Q
Was Mary’s experiment considered scientific according to Wundt? Explain.
A
Somewhat, but not completely. It had reliability and falsifiability but lacked objectivity and empirical evidence.
23
Q
What did Nisbett and Wilson (1977) claim about introspection?
A
We have very little knowledge of the causes of, and processes underlying, our behaviour and attitudes.
24
Q
What research method did Hunter et al. (2003) use to measure happiness?
A
Introspective methods with beepers.
25
Fill in the blank: Wundt's methods were criticized for being _______.
Non-empirical.
26
What did Wundt's work pave the way for?
Later controlled research and the study of mental processes.
27
What is a limitation of Wundt's research?
His method was not scientific and lacked reliability.
28
What is a strength of Wundt's methods?
Some aspects would still be considered scientific today, such as controlled lab conditions.
29
What is the significance of Wundt in psychology?
Marked the beginning of the scientific approach.
30
What were the two main components analyzed in introspection?
* Thought processes
* Emotions
31
What was the main criticism of introspection according to early behaviourists?
It was a subjective method reliant on non-observable responses.
32
What did Csikszentmihalyi and Hunter find about teens' happiness when focused on challenging tasks?
Teens tended to be more upbeat when their energies were focused on a challenging task.
## Footnote
This indicates that engagement in challenging activities can enhance positive emotions.
33
How is introspection viewed in contemporary psychology?
Introspection is still being used, demonstrating its long-lasting influence in psychology.
## Footnote
Introspection allows for a deeper understanding of human behavior through self-reflection.
34
Who had a significant influence on the discipline of psychology regarding the use of introspection?
Wundt.
## Footnote
Wundt is often referred to as the father of experimental psychology and established the first psychology laboratory.
35
What is the purpose of the essay plan mentioned in the text?
To discuss Wundt’s contribution to the development of psychology.
## Footnote
The essay plan includes specific assessment criteria for marking.
36
What does AO1 refer to in the essay plan?
Summary on page 8.
## Footnote
AO1 typically refers to knowledge and understanding in assessment criteria.
37
What does AO3 refer to in the essay plan?
4 PEE(V) paragraphs on pages 8-9.
## Footnote
AO3 generally assesses evaluation and analysis skills in essays.
38
Who is known as the ‘father of Psychology’?
Wundt
## Footnote
Wundt is recognized for establishing psychology as a discipline separate from philosophy.
39
What year did Wundt establish the first psychology laboratory?
1879
## Footnote
This laboratory was located in Leipzig, Germany.
40
What method did Wundt use to study mental processes?
Introspection
## Footnote
Introspection involved presenting controlled stimuli and analyzing the inner processes reported by subjects.
41
What are the basic assumptions of the Behaviourist Approach?
* Behaviour is learned from experience
* Only observable behaviour is measurable scientifically
* Psychologists should use lab experiments
* Basic processes of learning are the same in all species
42
What is classical conditioning?
Learning by association
## Footnote
Classical conditioning occurs when a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a reflex response.
43
What did Pavlov's experiment demonstrate?
Dogs salivate at the sound of a bell after it was associated with food
## Footnote
This demonstrated the principles of classical conditioning.
44
What is the unconditioned stimulus in Pavlov's study?
Food
## Footnote
The unconditioned stimulus naturally elicits a response (salivation) without conditioning.
45
What is the conditioned response in Pavlov's study?
Salivation to the bell
## Footnote
This response occurs after the bell has been associated with food.
46
What does stimulus generalization refer to?
Salivation occurs to stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus
## Footnote
For example, dogs salivating to bells of different pitches.
47
What does stimulus discrimination mean?
The conditioned response occurs only to the specific conditioned stimulus
## Footnote
In Pavlov's study, dogs salivate only to Pavlov’s bell and not any other bell sounds.
48
What is time contiguity in classical conditioning?
The unconditioned stimulus and neutral stimulus must be presented at the same time
## Footnote
This is necessary for an association to be formed.
49
Define spontaneous recovery in classical conditioning.
Reappearance of an extinct conditioned response after a period of time
## Footnote
This can occur without further conditioning.
50
What was the Little Albert experiment about?
Conditioning a child to fear a rat by pairing it with a loud noise
## Footnote
Conducted by Watson and Rayner, it illustrated classical conditioning in humans.
51
What is the unconditioned response in the Little Albert study?
Fear
## Footnote
Fear was the natural response to the loud noise, which was the unconditioned stimulus.
52
Fill in the blank: The blown-up balloon was originally a _______.
neutral stimulus
53
Fill in the blank: The burst balloon (loud noise) is the _______.
unconditioned stimulus
54
Fill in the blank: The reflex fear response is the _______.
unconditioned response
55
Fill in the blank: The conditioned stimulus in the balloon scenario is the _______.
blown-up balloon
56
Fill in the blank: The conditioned response is _______.
fear
57
What is one strength of Pavlov’s research?
It uses the experimental method
## Footnote
This allows for greater control and objectivity in the research.
58
What is a limitation of using non-human animals in Pavlov’s experiments?
Ethical concerns
## Footnote
Questions arise regarding the treatment and welfare of the animals used in research.
59
What is the role of the unconditioned response in classical conditioning?
It is the natural response that occurs without conditioning
## Footnote
This response is crucial for establishing the association with the conditioned stimulus.
60
What is the Behaviourist Approach in psychology?
A theory that focuses on observable behaviors and the ways they're learned through classical and operant conditioning.
## Footnote
Key figures include Pavlov and Skinner.
61
Define operant conditioning.
Learning by consequences of one’s behaviour.
## Footnote
It involves reinforcement or punishment following a behaviour.
62
What are the three types of consequences in operant conditioning?
* Positive reinforcement
* Negative reinforcement
* Punishment
63
What is positive reinforcement?
Receiving a reward when a certain behaviour is performed, making that behaviour more likely to reoccur.
64
What is negative reinforcement?
When the individual is rewarded by avoiding something unpleasant, increasing the likelihood of repeating the behaviour.
65
What is punishment in the context of operant conditioning?
An unpleasant consequence of a behaviour that makes it less likely to reoccur.
66
Who is considered the father of Operant Conditioning?
Burrhus Frederic Skinner.
67
What principle did Skinner's work build upon?
Thorndike’s Law of Effect.
68
Describe the Skinner Box.
An experimental apparatus containing a response lever, speakers, lights, and the capacity to administer electric shocks to test behaviour.
69
What happens when a rat accidentally knocks the lever in the Skinner Box?
A food pellet drops into a container, reinforcing the behaviour of pressing the lever.
70
In Skinner's experiment, what is the IV?
The consequences of behaviour, such as food falling into the dish or electric current stopping.
71
In Skinner's experiment, what is the DV?
The rat's behaviour.
72
What is a strength of Skinner’s research?
It used the experimental method, allowing for controlled observations.
73
What is a limitation of Skinner’s research?
The use of non-human animals, which raises ethical concerns.
74
What is a token economy?
A system where targeted behaviours are reinforced with tokens that can be exchanged for rewards.
75
Give examples of tokens used in a token economy.
* Fake money
* Buttons
* Poker chips
* Stickers
76
What is systematic desensitization?
A therapy for phobias based on classical conditioning principles, aiming to replace anxiety with relaxation.
77
How does systematic desensitization work?
Individuals progressively confront their fears, starting from least feared to most feared, while practicing relaxation techniques.
78
True or False: Skinner's research indicated that free will is an illusion.
True.
79
Fill in the blank: Skinner's research provided insights into the role of _______ on behaviour.
operant conditioning.
80
What is one practical application of Skinner's research?
Implementation of token economy systems in schools and prisons.
81
What ethical concerns are associated with Skinner's research?
Keeping animals in small cages and subjecting them to painful tests.
82
What is the relationship between antecedents, behaviours, and consequences in Skinner’s analysis of behaviour?
Antecedents are what happens before a behaviour, behaviours are the actions taken, and consequences are the results that follow.
83
What is the aim of the token economy system?
To reinforce positive behaviours through a system of rewards.
84
What is the process called that examines thought processes, feelings, emotions, and sensations?
Introspection.
85
According to the behaviourist perspective, 'The basic processes that govern learning are the same in all species'. True or false?
True.
86
Receiving a reward when a certain behaviour is performed is called?
Positive reinforcement.
87
What occurs when the individual is rewarded by avoiding something unpleasant?
Negative reinforcement.
88
The ability to test whether a theory is right or wrong is called?
Falsifiability.
89
In Pavlov’s experiment, what is food classed as and why?
Unconditioned stimulus – doesn’t need to be taught to salivate at food.
90
In Pavlov’s experiment, which two stimuli were paired together during conditioning?
The ringing bell and food.
91
Who conducted an experiment with rats in a box?
Skinner.
92
When something is based on fact/can be observed, it is called?
Objectivity.
93
What does Social Learning Theory (SLT) explain?
Behaviour that includes direct and indirect reinforcement, combining learning theory with cognitive factors.
94
What is imitation?
Copying the behaviour of others.
95
What is identification in the context of SLT?
When an observer associates themselves with a role model and wants to be like the role model.
96
What is modelling?
Imitating the behaviour of a role model; from the role model’s perspective, it is the precise demonstration of a specific behaviour.
97
What is vicarious reinforcement?
Reinforcement which is not directly experienced but occurs through observing someone else being reinforced for a behaviour.
98
What are mediational processes?
Cognitive factors that influence learning and come between stimulus and response.
99
Who was Albert Bandura?
A learning theorist who considered thought processes in behaviour.
100
What did Bandura challenge regarding Skinner's ideas?
That rewards and punishments automatically prompt or stop a behaviour.
101
What does Bandura's theory suggest about learning behaviour?
We learn behaviour by observing the positive and negative consequences of someone else's behaviour.
102
List the basic assumptions of Social Learning Theory.
* Behaviour is learned from the environment.
* Genetics do not influence behaviour.
* Behaviour is learned from observing others and the reinforcement or punishment they receive.
103
What are the four mediational processes documented by Bandura?
* Attention
* Retention
* Motor reproduction
* Motivation
104
What is attention in the context of mediational processes?
Noticing a behaviour that could be imitated.
105
What is retention in the context of mediational processes?
Forming a memory of the behaviour for later imitation.
106
What is motor reproduction?
The physical ability to imitate a behaviour.
107
What is motivation in the context of SLT?
The desire to perform the behaviour based on perceived rewards and costs.
108
What was the independent variable (IV) in Bandura’s experiment?
The gender and behaviour of the model.
109
What was the dependent variable (DV) in Bandura’s experiment?
The effect on the children's behaviour.
110
Give one strength of Bandura’s experiment.
He used the experimental method.
111
Give two limitations of Bandura’s experiment.
* Low ecological validity.
* Unethical.
112
What is one strength of Social Learning Theory?
It is supported by evidence.
113
What does Social Learning Theory help us understand?
Cultural differences in behaviour.
114
What is a limitation of Social Learning Theory?
It favours only the nurture side of the nature vs nurture debate.
115
What does Social Learning Theory help us understand?
It helps us understand how individuals display different behaviours due to exposure to different models and how cultural norms are transmitted through society.
116
What is a strength of Social Learning Theory?
It enhances our understanding of different behaviours, such as how children acquire their gender role.
117
Who proposed that we learn behaviour through observation and vicarious reinforcement?
Bandura.
118
What does Bandura's claim ignore regarding behaviour?
It ignores the evidence that biological factors contribute to behaviour, such as genes and hormones.
119
What criticism is directed at Bandura's research on aggression?
Boys were found to be more aggressive than girls regardless of the specifics or experimental setting.
120
What does the evidence suggest about aggression in relation to Bandura's theory?
There is a biological component to aggression that Bandura fails to consider.
121
What does SLT fail to provide regarding human behaviour?
A full explanation of human behaviour, specifically aggression.
122
Fill in the blank: The advert uses an England rugby player, which means it is likely to grab our attention because we _______.
recognise them.
123
What effect does humor have in advertisements according to the content?
It is likely to grab our attention.
124
What is the significance of the catchphrase in the advert?
It helps retain the message and encourages buying the cleaning product.
125
What does 'motor reproduction' refer to in the context of behaviour?
The act of spraying and wiping clean, which is easy to replicate.
126
What motivates the viewer to perform the behaviour in the advert?
The potential for successful removal of difficult stains.
127
What is an example of vicarious reinforcement in the advert's context?
The boy clapping, which positively reinforces the behaviour.
128
What type of reinforcement is illustrated by Imran handing in his essay on time?
Negative reinforcement.
129
What type of reinforcement is shown when Sara buys perfume after seeing an advert with Beyonce?
Vicarious reinforcement.
130
What motivated Gill to mow the lawn?
His sister was given £5 to wash the car, demonstrating vicarious reinforcement.
131
What type of reinforcement does Isla experience from her teacher's praise?
Positive reinforcement.
132
What type of reinforcement is demonstrated by Aaliyah telling a joke she heard on T.V.?
Vicarious reinforcement.
133
What type of reinforcement is illustrated by Miranda taking care of her crying baby?
Negative reinforcement.
134
What does the cognitive approach study?
Internal mental processes
## Footnote
The cognitive approach focuses on how mental processes like thoughts and perceptions affect behavior.
135
Define 'schema' in cognitive psychology.
A mental framework of beliefs and expectations that influence cognitive processing
## Footnote
Schemas are developed from experience.
136
What is the role of schemas in cognitive processing?
They help organize and interpret information
## Footnote
Schemas allow for quick processing and prediction of events.
137
What is inference in cognitive psychology?
The process of drawing conclusions about mental processes based on observed behavior.
138
What is cognitive neuroscience?
The scientific study of biological structures that underpin cognitive processes.
139
What do cognitive psychologists believe about thought processes?
They must be studied scientifically to explain behavior.
140
How does the cognitive approach differ from behaviorism?
It argues that internal mental processes can, and should, be studied scientifically.
141
List three areas of human behavior investigated by cognitive psychologists.
* Memory
* Perception
* Thinking
142
What is the information processing approach?
It suggests that information flows through the cognitive system in a sequence of stages like a computer.
143
What is a limitation of the computer analogy in cognitive psychology?
It can be considered over-simplistic.
144
What does the Multi Store Model illustrate?
Different stores of memory connected by cognitive processes.
145
Fill in the blank: The cognitive approach uses _______ to study internal mental processes.
Theoretical models
146
What is vicarious reinforcement?
When an observer experiences indirect rewards by seeing someone else rewarded for their actions.
147
What is modeling in social learning theory?
When a specific person produces a behavior that is copied by an observer.
148
Define 'internal mental processes'.
'Private' operations of the mind such as attention and perception.
149
What is a primary method used by cognitive psychologists to study behavior?
The experimental method.
150
What type of tasks did Tulving et al (1994) conduct using PET scans?
Memory tasks.
151
What is the difference between episodic and semantic memory according to Tulving et al (1994)?
Episodic memory uses the right side of the prefrontal cortex, while semantic memory uses the left side.
152
True or False: The brain can easily misplace information.
True.
153
What is the significance of the first CT scan of the human brain?
It marked the beginning of systematic brain imaging in psychology.
154
Fill in the blank: Cognitive neuroscience looks for a _______ basis to thought.
Biological
155
What are fMRI scans used for?
Measuring blood flow in the brain during tasks.
156
What do PET scans measure in the brain?
Activity based on the presence of a radioactive glucose tracer.
157
What is a key criticism of the cognitive approach's use of computer models?
It offers a determinist view of human behavior.
158
List two brain imaging techniques mentioned in the text.
* fMRI
* PET
159
What is the role of emotions in cognitive psychology according to the text?
Emotions impact the way our minds function.
160
What is an example of an innate schema in babies?
Grasping.
161
How do schemas develop as individuals age?
They become more detailed and sophisticated.
162
What did Tulving et al (1994) use to determine which parts of the brain were active during memory tasks?
PET scan
## Footnote
This study provided evidence for different types of long-term memory (LTM) being controlled by different brain areas.
163
Which part of the brain is associated with semantic memory according to Tulving et al (1994)?
Left side of the prefrontal cortex
164
Which part of the brain is associated with episodic memory according to Tulving et al (1994)?
Right side of the prefrontal cortex
165
What type of treatment does CBT aim to provide?
Identify and challenge maladaptive thoughts and alter dysfunctional behaviours
166
What percentage of depressed patients relapse after 12 weeks of CBT according to Holon et al (2006)?
40%
167
What percentage of depressed patients relapse after taking drugs, as found by Holon et al (2006)?
45%
168
Why is the cognitive approach considered to have practical applications?
It has produced successful treatments like CBT
169
What is a key difference between the cognitive approach and behaviorist/biological approaches regarding research participants?
Cognitive approach mostly uses human participants
170
What does the scientific method in the cognitive approach enhance?
The scientific status of psychology
171
What type of experiments does the cognitive approach primarily use?
Laboratory experiments
172
What is a limitation of cognitive psychology research mentioned in the text?
Low ecological validity
173
Give an example of a task that may not reflect everyday experiences in cognitive psychology.
Baddeley’s experiment into the encoding of long-term memory
174
What does the cognitive approach recognize about cognitive systems?
They operate within the limits of what we know but allow free thought before responding
175
What does the cognitive approach's soft determinism contrast with?
Hard determinism of behaviorism and biological approaches
176
What is cognitive reductionism?
The idea that all behavior can be reduced to simple cognitive processes
177
What is a major limitation of cognitive reductionism?
It may not provide a complete explanation of human behavior
178
What can schemas help us with?
Interpret and predict events in the world around us
179
How might schemas lead to errors in eyewitness testimony (EWT)?
By influencing recall based on stereotypes or preconceived notions
180
What is the focus of cognitive neuroscience?
Understanding the biological basis of thought and the role of neurons in cognitive processes
181
What do cognitive neuroscientists study?
Memory, attention, perception, and awareness
182
What brain imaging technique is mentioned in the context of cognitive neuroscience?
PET scans
183
What does a PET scan show?
A build up of radioactive tracers in areas of heightened brain activity
184
What can PET scans help understand?
Cognitive impairment, such as that caused by a brain tumor
185
What is the Biological Approach in psychology?
The influence of genes, biological structures, and neurochemistry on behaviour.
186
Define genes.
A unit of heredity which is transferred from a parent to offspring and is held to determine some characteristic of the offspring.
187
What is genotype?
An individual’s genetic make-up, which occurs at conception and provides the genetic code for how that individual will develop.
188
What is phenotype?
The expression of an individual’s genetic make-up which can be influenced by the environment.
189
What is evolution in the context of psychology?
The process by which different kinds of living organisms are believed to have developed from earlier forms during the history of the earth.
190
What are the core assumptions of the biological approach?
* Genetics
* Evolution
* The central nervous system (brain and spinal cord)
* Biochemistry
191
How do genetics influence behaviour?
The genes an individual possesses influence their behaviour.
192
What was the concordance rate of major depressive disorder for identical twins according to McGuffin et al 1996?
46% for identical twins and 20% for non-identical twins.
193
What role does the central nervous system play in the biological approach?
The brain is seen as the main focus when explaining behaviour as it is the origin of how the world is perceived and acted upon.
194
What is the significance of biochemistry in the biological approach?
Varying levels of chemicals such as neurotransmitters and hormones are thought to influence an individual's behaviour.
195
Which neurotransmitter is linked to elevated mood?
Serotonin.
196
Which neurotransmitter is associated with schizophrenia?
Dopamine.
197
What is heredity?
The process where characteristics are passed from one generation to the next through genes.
198
How many pairs of chromosomes do individuals typically have?
23 pairs inherited from their biological parents.
199
What is a twin study?
A study comparing pairs of monozygotic (MZ) and dizygotic (DZ) twins to assess the genetic basis of behaviour.
200
What is the definition of concordance rate?
The statistical likelihood that a person will develop a trait or set of traits if their genetic relative/s has that trait or set of traits.
201
What is the diathesis-stress model?
A model suggesting that some individuals are born with a genetic predisposition for certain behaviours but an environmental trigger is necessary to express that behaviour.
202
What do adoption studies examine?
Concordance rates for a behaviour between an adoptive child and their biological parent.
203
What is a limitation of twin studies?
Concordance rates in monozygotic twins are never 100%, suggesting that environmental factors must also play a role.
204
How does genotype differ from phenotype?
Genotype is the genetic make-up, while phenotype is the expression of that genetic make-up influenced by the environment.
205
What is natural selection?
The process where traits that increase survival and reproductive success are passed on to future generations.
206
What is an example of an evolved behaviour related to maternal love?
Maternal love increases the chances of a woman’s offspring surviving.
207
What are some characteristics males prefer in females based on evolved behaviour?
Females displaying characteristics of fertility.
208
What is the role of neurotransmitters in behaviour?
They transmit signals across synapses and can either stimulate or inhibit nerve impulses.
209
True or False: The biological approach suggests that behaviour is solely determined by genetics.
False.
210
Fill in the blank: The biological approach suggests that _______ influences behaviour through heredity.
[genes]
211
What is the impact of environmental factors on phenotype?
They can inhibit or enhance the expression of an individual's genetic potential.
212
What is the significance of the cerebral fluid in neurochemistry?
It facilitates the transmission of neurotransmitters in the brain.
