Research Methods Flashcards
(240 cards)
1
Q
What does psychology help us understand?
A
Human behaviour
Psychology provides insights into the reasons behind actions and decisions.
2
Q
What is required to gather data on behaviour?
A
Research methods
Different research methods have their own strengths and weaknesses.
3
Q
What are the six sections of the RM specification?
A
Research Methods overview
Detailed content can be found on page 3 of the Research Methods study guide.
4
Q
What are the key terms to understand in Research Methods?
A
Reliability, Internal reliability, External reliability, Validity, Internal validity, External validity, Population validity, Ecological validity, Historical validity
These terms are essential for evaluating research.
5
Q
What is the main variable changed in the class experiment?
A
Speed of the music
Two conditions: slow and fast music.
6
Q
What does the class experiment aim to measure?
A
Concentration
Measured by the score on a word search in 2 minutes.
7
Q
In the class experiment, what are the two music tracks used for slow and fast conditions?
A
- Slow: Great Big World – Say Something
- Fast: Mark Ronson & Bruno Mars – Uptown Funk
8
Q
What is the task for participants in the class experiment?
A
Complete a word search in 2 minutes
Participants will have different conditions to compare results.
9
Q
What should be included when sketching a bar chart for the experiment?
A
- Suitable title
- Labelled axes
- Gaps between bars
- Correctly plotted results
This can be worth up to 4 marks in an exam.
10
Q
What does reliability refer to?
A
Consistency of data
Similar results should be obtained using the same method with similar participants.
11
Q
What does validity refer to?
A
Accuracy of measurement
It assesses whether a study measures what it claims to measure.
12
Q
What is an example of a problem with validity in a stress study?
A
Measuring stress by observing sweatiness
This may not accurately reflect stress levels.
13
Q
Does a word search effectively measure concentration?
A
No
The study may inadvertently assess the effects of catchy vs. non-catchy songs.
14
Q
What types of validity should be assessed in the class experiment?
A
- Internal validity
- External validity
- Population validity
- Ecological validity
These assess the quality and applicability of the study’s findings.
15
Q
Write a fill-in-the-blank for the definition of reliability: Reliability refers to how _______ the data is.
A
consistent
16
Q
Write a fill-in-the-blank for the definition of validity: Validity refers to whether a study measures or examines what it _______ to measure or examine.
A
claims
17
Q
What is an example of an extraneous variable in a study?
A
Participant variables such as memory of participants in different groups or familiarity with the words
Extraneous variables can confound the results of a study, affecting the validity of the findings.
18
Q
What are the two marks awarded for in the operationalization of variables?
A
1 mark if one or both are not fully operationalized, 2 marks if both are fully operationalized.
19
Q
What does informed consent entail?
A
Participants should know about all aspects of the study including aims, procedures, rights, and data usage.
20
Q
True or False: Deception is allowed in research if it leads to significant positive gains for society.
A
True
21
Q
What must researchers do to protect participants?
A
Researchers must protect participants from physical and psychological harm during the investigation.
22
Q
What is the right to withdraw?
A
Participants should be informed they can stop their participation at any point.
23
Q
Fill in the blank: _______ involves providing participants with a complete understanding of the study after it has been conducted.
A
Debriefing
24
Q
What should be included in a consent form?
A
Aims and procedures of the study, participants’ rights, what their data will be used for.
25
Why might informed consent not always be possible?
Age, ability to understand the study, or the need for consent from guardians in cases involving minors.
26
What is the responsibility of researchers regarding confidentiality?
Researchers must ensure that personal details are protected and participants are kept anonymous.
27
What is the function of debriefing?
To complete participants' understanding of the study, monitor for negative effects, and address any participant distress.
28
What ethical guidelines are imposed by the British Psychological Society?
Guidelines regarding informed consent, deception, confidentiality, debriefing, right to withdraw, and protection of participants.
29
How should confidentiality be maintained in research?
Personal details should not be recorded or should be anonymized in reports.
30
What is an example of a way to obtain consent when informed consent is not possible?
Prior general consent, presumptive consent, or retrospective consent.
31
What is protection of participants?
The responsibility of researchers to protect participants from any form of physical or psychological harm.
32
What must researchers do if they suspect harm is being caused during a study?
Terminate the research even if the participant has not asked to withdraw.
33
What should participants be reminded of in the debriefing?
Their right to withdraw their data and the aims and procedures of the study.
34
What is an ethical issue related to research with participants in custody?
Issues of consent or potential coercion to participate.
35
How can researchers deal with issues of deception?
Provide as much information as possible in the standardized instructions and consent form, and ensure thorough debriefing.
36
What are the major ethical issues in psychology?
Respecting dignity and well-being of participants while conducting innovative research.
37
What is the purpose of ethical guidelines in psychological research?
To ensure the dignity and well-being of participants are respected during the research process.
38
What should be done if participants experience distress during a study?
Debrief them and provide counseling if necessary.
39
What is the role of the ethics board in psychological research?
To review and approve research proposals to ensure ethical standards are met.
40
What is an appropriate ethical issue related to research?
Confidentiality, respect, protection from harm, right to withdraw, privacy
## Footnote
No marks for consent
41
What is one mark awarded for in the context of addressing ethical issues?
Identification of a relevant ethical issue
## Footnote
This includes ethical issues like right to withdraw or confidentiality
42
What should be explained when identifying an ethical issue?
Why it should have been addressed
## Footnote
This should follow the identification of the ethical issue
43
What is required for a practical description of addressing an ethical issue?
How it could have been dealt with
## Footnote
This should be coherent with the identified issue
44
What was the most common ethical issue identified by students?
Right to withdraw
## Footnote
Many students explained its importance and how to address it
45
True or False: Debriefing is considered an ethical issue.
False
## Footnote
Debriefing is a tool used by researchers to address ethical issues
46
What ethical issue might arise due to a participant's brain damage?
Doubt regarding ability to give informed consent
## Footnote
This raises concerns about the validity of consent
47
What is one way to deal with confidentiality?
Keep Peter’s details private
## Footnote
Psychologists should not use the man's name in published work
48
How can researchers address the right to withdraw?
Remind participants of their right to withdraw immediately if distressed
## Footnote
Participants can withdraw their data as well
49
What is informed consent?
Agreement by participants to partake in research after being informed of risks
## Footnote
Essential for ethical research practices
50
What is deception in research ethics?
Misleading participants about the true purpose of a study
## Footnote
This must be justified and addressed properly
51
What is presumptive consent?
Consent obtained from a similar group to determine acceptability
## Footnote
Often used when direct consent is not feasible
52
What is prior general consent?
Consent given by participants for future studies
## Footnote
Allows for flexibility in research
53
What is retrospective consent?
Consent obtained after the study has been completed
## Footnote
Used when prior consent was not obtained
54
What is protection of participants?
Ensuring the safety and well-being of research participants
## Footnote
A fundamental ethical guideline
55
What is debriefing?
Process of informing participants about the study after it has concluded
## Footnote
Important for ethical transparency but not an ethical issue itself
56
What is the definition of 'sampling'?
The process of selecting a smaller group from a larger population to study.
57
Define 'target population'.
A subset of the general population that the researcher is interested in studying.
58
What does 'population' refer to in research methods?
The large group of individuals that a researcher is interested in studying.
59
What is a 'sample'?
A smaller group selected from the target population for research purposes.
60
What is meant by 'representative sample'?
A sample that includes a diverse range of people that reflect the target population.
61
What is 'generalisation' in research?
The extent to which findings and conclusions from a specific investigation can be applied to the target population.
62
What is 'bias' in sampling?
When certain groups are over or underrepresented within the selected sample.
63
True or False: A sample must always perfectly represent the target population.
False.
64
List the five sampling techniques mentioned.
* Random
* Opportunity
* Volunteer (Self-Selecting)
* Systematic
* Stratified
65
What is 'random sampling'?
A sampling method where participants are selected randomly from the entire population.
66
How does 'opportunity sampling' work?
Participants are selected based on their availability at the time of the study.
67
What is 'volunteer sampling'?
A sampling method that uses participants who self-select to take part in the study.
68
Define 'systematic sampling'.
A method where every nth person is selected from a sampling frame.
69
What is 'stratified sampling'?
A technique where the sample reflects the proportions of subgroups within the target population.
70
Fill in the blank: Generalisation refers to the extent to which findings can be _______.
[broadly applied to the target population]
71
What is the implication of bias in sampling?
It limits the extent to which generalisations can be made to the target population.
72
What is a 'sampling frame'?
A list of all the individuals in the target population from which a sample is drawn.
73
True or False: A stratified sample ensures that all subgroups are represented in correct proportions.
True.
74
What is the purpose of evaluating sampling techniques?
To understand the implications of each technique, including bias and generalisation.
75
What is a potential advantage of using stratified sampling?
It ensures the sample is truly representative of different types of people in the target population.
76
Describe the manual selection method for random sampling.
Get a complete list of potential participants, put their names in a container, and draw out names randomly.
77
Explain the computer selection method for random sampling.
Assign numbers to each member of the target population and use a random number generator to select participants.
78
List two examples of biases that can occur in sampling.
* Overrepresentation of certain age groups
* Underrepresentation of specific ethnic origins
79
How can researchers reduce bias in systematic sampling?
By starting from a randomly determined point in the sampling frame.
80
Fill in the blank: A representative sample aims to include a _______ range of people.
[diverse]
81
What types of characteristics might be considered when ensuring a sample is representative?
* Age
* Gender
* Interests
* Experience
82
What is 60% of 20?
12
83
How can 12 numbers be generated between 1 and 60?
Using random number generation functions on a computer
84
What is a potential disadvantage of using volunteers in a study?
Sample is biased, lacking representativeness
85
What could affect how volunteers respond to therapy?
Their confidence, helpfulness, or curiosity
86
What is stratified sampling?
A sampling method that increases representation by sampling many subsets proportionally to the target population
87
How does stratified sampling reduce research bias?
By selecting subsets of students randomly, proportionate to the target population
88
List some subsets that could be included in stratified sampling.
* Music students
* Non-music students
* Year 12 students
* Year 13 students
89
What is one limitation of opportunity sampling?
It can be biased and unrepresentative of the target population
90
How might opportunity sampling affect the study's results?
Participants in a café may be more confident/outgoing, skewing results
91
What is a common error made by students regarding sampling techniques?
Confusing stratified sampling with systematic sampling
92
What is one limitation of opportunity sampling identified in the model answer?
Researcher bias
93
Why is the lack of a target population a limitation in opportunity sampling?
It makes the sample unrepresentative, causing generalization issues
94
What is the mark allocation for identifying opportunity sampling?
1 mark
95
How many marks can be awarded for a clear, elaborated explanation of a limitation of opportunity sampling?
2 marks
96
Identify one generic limitation of opportunity sampling.
Biased sampling
97
What is an aim in research?
A general statement of what the researcher intends to investigate – the purpose of the study.
## Footnote
It usually begins with 'To investigate...'.
98
What is a hypothesis?
A clear, precise, testable statement that states the relationship between the variables to be investigated.
## Footnote
It is stated at the outset of any study.
99
What is a directional hypothesis?
Predicts the one way in which a variable will affect another.
## Footnote
Examples include specific predictions about the relationship between variables.
100
What is a non-directional hypothesis?
Does not state the direction of the difference or relationship.
## Footnote
It indicates that there is an effect but not the specific nature of that effect.
101
What is a null hypothesis?
Phrased like a non-directional hypothesis, yet predicts that nothing will happen.
## Footnote
It is stated alongside a directional/non-directional hypothesis at the start of a study.
102
How do you operationalise variables in a hypothesis?
Define the variables in measurable terms, specifying the conditions and units of measurement.
## Footnote
For example, time studying could be measured in minutes per week.
103
What is the difference between an aim and a hypothesis?
An aim is a statement about what the researcher is intending to investigate, whereas a hypothesis is a testable statement accepted or rejected based on study results.
## Footnote
Aims outline the study's purpose, while hypotheses provide specific predictions.
104
Fill in the blank: A _______ hypothesis predicts a specific direction of the relationship between variables.
directional
105
Fill in the blank: A _______ hypothesis does not specify the direction of the difference or relationship.
non-directional
106
What is an example of a directional hypothesis for an experiment?
Participants who have consumed 300ml of SpeedUpp will say more words in 5 minutes compared to participants who drink 300ml of water.
## Footnote
It includes operationalised independent and dependent variables.
107
What is an example of a non-directional hypothesis for a correlation?
There will be a difference in the number of minutes revising per week and performance on the Psychology test (out of 24).
## Footnote
It indicates a relationship without specifying the direction.
108
True or False: A null hypothesis is accepted if a directional or non-directional hypothesis is supported by the results.
False
109
What factors determine whether a researcher uses a directional or non-directional hypothesis?
Findings of previous research suggest a particular outcome or there is no previous research or contradictory results.
## Footnote
Directional hypotheses are used when there is supporting evidence from prior studies.
110
Fill in the blank: A non-directional hypothesis is used when _______ previous research or the research is _______.
there is no; contradictory
111
What is an example of a null hypothesis for an experiment?
There will be no difference in the number of words spoken in 5 minutes between participants who drink 300ml of SpeedUpp and participants who drink 300ml of water.
112
What should be included when writing a directional hypothesis?
The independent variable (IV) and dependent variable (DV) should be included and operationalised.
## Footnote
It should also discuss a difference.
113
What is the purpose of operationalising variables?
To ensure that variables are defined in measurable terms that can be tested in a study.
## Footnote
This helps in clarifying how the research will be conducted.
114
In a study investigating the relationship between time studying and test performance, what are the co-variables?
* Time studying
* How well they do on the test
## Footnote
These variables need to be operationalised for clarity.
115
What is the significance of a non-directional hypothesis?
A non-directional hypothesis indicates that there is no specific predicted direction of the relationship between variables.
## Footnote
It is suitable when there is no prior evidence to predict the direction of results.
116
What are the marks awarded for a clearly stated non-directional hypothesis?
3 marks for a clearly stated non-directional hypothesis.
## Footnote
It must include both key variables and their operational definitions.
117
Fill in the blank: A hypothesis should be non-directional when there is _______.
no previous research available.
118
What is required for full credit when stating a directional hypothesis?
A clear and coherent directional operationalised hypothesis.
## Footnote
It must operationalise both the independent variable (IV) and dependent variable (DV).
119
True or False: A muddled statement with only the IV and DV present can receive full marks.
False.
## Footnote
Muddled statements do not meet the clarity requirement for full marks.
120
What is the maximum mark for a hypothesis expressed in a null form?
Full credit can be awarded.
## Footnote
A null hypothesis indicates no expected effect or relationship between variables.
121
What does AO2 = 2 signify in marking?
It indicates that 2 marks are available for the explanation of the hypothesis suitability.
## Footnote
This is based on the clarity and appropriateness of the hypothesis.
122
What is the consequence of failing to operationalise the DV and IV in a hypothesis?
Students may lose marks due to lack of clarity in their hypothesis.
## Footnote
Operational definitions are crucial for understanding the relationship being tested.
123
What is an example of a suitable non-directional hypothesis?
There is a relationship between the map reading scores and the driving error ratings of motorists.
## Footnote
This hypothesis does not specify the direction of the relationship.
124
How many marks can be awarded for a muddled statement that includes both the IV and DV?
1 mark.
## Footnote
The statement must still reference both variables to receive any credit.
125
What is a common error students make when writing hypotheses?
Providing only one condition of the IV.
## Footnote
This indicates a misunderstanding of how to structure a hypothesis.
126
What criteria must be met for a directional hypothesis to earn full marks?
It must be appropriate, clear, and operationalised.
## Footnote
Both conditions of the IV and DV should be clearly defined.
127
What should students do to improve their understanding of hypotheses?
Engage in practical experience of selecting appropriate hypotheses.
## Footnote
This helps in accurately applying knowledge to answer questions.
128
What does a non-directional hypothesis imply about the researcher’s expectations?
The researcher does not predict a specific outcome direction.
## Footnote
This is often due to lack of prior research evidence.
129
What type of hypothesis would be appropriate if past research indicates a clear direction of effect?
A directional hypothesis.
## Footnote
This hypothesis specifies the expected relationship direction based on prior findings.
130
What is the purpose of operationalising variables in a hypothesis?
To provide clear definitions that enable measurement of the variables.
## Footnote
Operationalisation is essential for the validity of the research.
131
Fill in the blank: A directional hypothesis predicts the _______ of the relationship between variables.
specific direction.
132
What are the consequences of stating an aim instead of a hypothesis?
0 marks.
## Footnote
Aims do not meet the criteria for hypotheses in research.
133
What are the three measures of central tendency?
Mean, Median, Mode
## Footnote
These measures help summarize a set of data points.
134
How is the Mean calculated?
Add all the values together and divide by the total number of scores
## Footnote
This provides the average value of the dataset.
135
What is the Mode?
The value that occurs the most often
## Footnote
It identifies the most frequent score in a dataset.
136
Define Median.
The middle value of a set of numbers that has been placed in order
## Footnote
It represents the central point of the dataset.
137
What does the Range measure?
The difference between the highest and lowest number
## Footnote
It indicates the spread of the data.
138
What is Standard Deviation?
A measure of the variability of a set of scores around the mean
## Footnote
It shows how much the scores differ from the average.
139
What does a small Standard Deviation indicate?
Scores are close to the mean, more similar, less varied
## Footnote
It suggests consistency within the data.
140
What does a large Standard Deviation indicate?
Scores are not very close to the mean, less similar, more varied
## Footnote
It reflects greater variability in the data.
141
Fill in the blank: The _______ is the difference between the highest and lowest number.
Range
142
How do you calculate Percentage Increase?
Work out the difference, divide by the original number, multiply by 100
## Footnote
This method quantifies the increase relative to the original value.
143
Calculate the percentage decrease when customers drop from 25 to 18.
28%
## Footnote
The calculation involves finding the difference, dividing by the original number, and multiplying by 100.
144
What is the formula for calculating Percentage Decrease?
Difference between new and original number / original number x 100
## Footnote
This formula helps determine how much a value has decreased in percentage terms.
145
True or False: The Median is always the most representative measure of central tendency.
False
## Footnote
The appropriateness of the median depends on the data distribution.
146
What is one strength of using the Mean?
It considers all values in the dataset
## Footnote
This provides a comprehensive overview of the data.
147
What is one weakness of using the Mode?
It may not represent the dataset well if it is not unique
## Footnote
Multiple modes can lead to ambiguity in interpretation.
148
What indicates less variation in data between two groups?
Smaller standard deviation
## Footnote
It suggests that the group's scores are more consistent.
149
What are the steps to calculate the percentage profit?
Find the difference, divide by the original number, multiply by 100
## Footnote
This quantifies the profit made relative to the initial cost.
150
What is the significance of evaluating measures of central tendency?
To determine which measure is most appropriate for the data
## Footnote
Different measures can provide varied insights depending on the dataset characteristics.
151
Fill in the blank: The _______ is the one you see the most.
Mode
152
What is quantitative data?
Expressed numerically.
153
What techniques are used to collect quantitative data?
Gathering numerical data from individual scores and closed questions.
154
Can quantitative data be analyzed statistically?
Yes, it can be analyzed statistically.
155
What is qualitative data?
Expressed in words.
156
What techniques are used to collect qualitative data?
Written descriptions, observations, diary extracts, interview transcripts, and open questions.
157
Is qualitative data easily converted into graphs or charts?
No, unless content analysis is performed first.
158
What is the mean in the context of data presentation?
The average value calculated from a set of numbers.
159
What does a higher standard deviation indicate?
A larger spread of scores.
160
What is a bar chart used for?
To display discrete data divided into categories.
161
What should be included in a bar chart's title?
The operationalized independent variable (IV) and dependent variable (DV).
162
What is a histogram?
A graph used for continuous data with no gaps between bars.
163
What does the x-axis of a histogram represent?
Equal sized intervals of a single category.
164
What do scattergrams show?
Relationships between co-variables.
165
What is the difference between primary and secondary data?
Primary data is collected first-hand, whereas secondary data is gathered from previous research.
166
What is meta-analysis?
A statistical technique for analyzing secondary data by reviewing multiple studies.
167
What is one strength of using primary data?
Greater insight and detail tailored to the study.
168
What is one limitation of secondary data?
It may contain irrelevant or redundant information.
169
What type of data would an interview about OCD experiences be classified as?
Primary data.
170
What is the purpose of using a scattergram?
To visualize the correlation between two variables.
171
True or False: A histogram is used for discrete data.
False.
172
Fill in the blank: The _____ is a statistical technique for analyzing secondary data.
meta-analysis
173
What type of data is collected from participants directly?
Primary data
## Footnote
Primary data is gathered first-hand from the source, which provides direct insights into the research topic.
174
What is one strength of primary data?
Data gathered is more likely to be focused on the purpose of the research
## Footnote
This focus minimizes irrelevant or redundant information.
175
How does primary data control issues compared to secondary data?
First-hand data can be controlled whereas secondary data may have been gathered under differing conditions
## Footnote
This control enhances the reliability of the research findings.
176
What is an example of primary research in the provided text?
A lab study to see if males or females are more susceptible to visual illusions
## Footnote
This study involves direct observation and experimentation.
177
What is an example of secondary research in the provided text?
A researcher examines the transcript of a trial to see if there were inconsistencies in eyewitness accounts
## Footnote
This involves analyzing existing documents rather than collecting new data.
178
Fill in the blank: A researcher assesses how the GCSE results of schools in her local area compare with _______.
national averages
## Footnote
This comparison is a form of secondary research as it involves existing data.
179
True or False: Secondary data is typically gathered directly from participants.
False
## Footnote
Secondary data is collected from existing sources or reports.
180
What is one potential advantage of primary data over secondary data?
Less peripheral/redundant information
## Footnote
This makes primary data more relevant and useful for specific research questions.
181
What is a key reason for controlling extraneous variables in primary research?
To increase the validity of the findings
## Footnote
This ensures that the results are more reliable and directly related to the research question.
182
What is the aim of observing how primary school children negotiate rules during a game of marbles?
To understand social interactions and rule-making processes among children
## Footnote
This type of study provides insights into developmental psychology.
183
What is the difference between primary and secondary data?
Primary data is collected from participants directly/first hand whereas secondary data is gathered from reports of previous research.
184
What are two strengths of primary data?
* Greater insight/more detail
* Tailored to the study
## Footnote
Participants are directly involved in the data collection process
185
What are two limitations of secondary data?
* Research not conducted for the purpose of the study
* May contain irrelevant/redundant data
186
What is a meta-analysis?
Statistical technique for analysing secondary data.
187
Why does Van Ijzendoorn & Kroonenberg’s (1988) study meet the definition of a meta-analysis?
* Analysed the data of 32 studies involving the strange situation
* It is secondary data because it was based on previous research.
188
What is a strength of a meta-analysis?
Usually have high population validity – high external validity.
189
What is a limitation of a meta-analysis?
Not all the studies use the same method – low internal validity.
190
Classify the following as primary or secondary data: A researcher searches through newspapers to see if there is a relationship between daily temperature and the total number of violent incidents.
Secondary.
191
Classify the following as primary or secondary data: An interview with people with obsessive compulsive disorder and their experiences.
Primary.
192
Classify the following as primary or secondary data: An observation of how primary school children negotiate rules during a game of marbles.
Primary.
193
Classify the following as primary or secondary data: A comparison of crime statistics in inner city or rural areas to see if there is a difference.
Secondary.
194
Classify the following as primary or secondary data: A researcher assesses how the GCSE results of schools in her local area compare with national averages.
Secondary.
195
Classify the following as primary or secondary data: A lab study to see if males or females are more susceptible to visual illusions.
Primary.
196
Classify the following as primary or secondary data: A researcher examines the transcript of a trial to see if there were inconsistencies in eyewitness accounts.
Secondary.
197
Classify the following as primary or secondary data: A researcher asks cinemagoers leaving a horror movie if they feel more murderous after seeing the film.
Primary.
198
What is one strength of primary data?
Data gathered is more likely to be focused on the purpose of the research.
199
What is another strength of primary data?
Less peripheral/redundant information.
200
What is a control issue related to primary data?
First hand data can be controlled whereas secondary data may have been gathered under differing conditions.
201
Fill in the blank: One strength of primary data is that it is _______ to the study.
[tailored]
202
Fill in the blank: Not all the studies in a meta-analysis use the same _______.
[method]
203
What are the different types of observational techniques?
Naturalistic observation, Controlled observation, Overt observation, Covert observation, Participant observation, Non-participant observation
## Footnote
These techniques are used by psychologists to research behavior.
204
Define naturalistic observation
Observation of behavior in a natural setting without interference
## Footnote
Examples include observing behavior in public places like cafes or parks.
205
Define controlled observation
Observation of behavior under controlled conditions where the researcher can manipulate variables
## Footnote
This often occurs in a lab environment.
206
What is overt observation?
Participants know they are being observed
## Footnote
This can lead to demand characteristics.
207
What is covert observation?
Participants are not aware they are being observed
## Footnote
This raises ethical concerns.
208
What is participant observation?
The researcher joins the group being observed, usually covertly
## Footnote
This can lead to ethical issues and biases.
209
What is non-participant observation?
The researcher remains external to the group being observed
## Footnote
This may lead to missing important behaviors.
210
What is the key difference between controlled and naturalistic observations?
The control of the environment where behavior is observed: naturalistic is uncontrolled, controlled is manipulated
## Footnote
Controlled observations often have low ecological validity.
211
What are the ethical concerns of covert observation?
Participants are not informed they are being observed, which is unethical
## Footnote
This can violate participants' rights.
212
What are demand characteristics?
When participants change their behavior because they know they are being observed
## Footnote
This can affect the validity of the research findings.
213
Give an example of a study that used overt observation.
A researcher observes primary school children through a two-way mirror
## Footnote
This study is overt because the children are aware of the observation.
214
True or False: In participant observation, the researcher does not engage with the participants.
False
## Footnote
In participant observation, the researcher actively engages with the group.
215
What are the advantages of covert observation?
Participants are unaware they are being observed, leading to natural behavior and reduced demand characteristics
## Footnote
This increases the internal validity of the findings.
216
What is one strength of controlled observation?
Easier to replicate due to control over extraneous variables
## Footnote
This allows for reliability assessment of the findings.
217
Fill in the blank: In a __________ observation, the researcher observes from a distance and does not interact with participants.
non-participant
218
List the potential problems with controlled observations.
* Low ecological validity
* Low control
## Footnote
These issues can affect the generalizability of the findings.
219
What is the purpose of the study by Middlemist, Knowles & Matter (1976)?
To investigate how personal space invasions affect the speed and flow of men’s urination
## Footnote
This study exemplifies covert observation in a public setting.
220
What type of observation is the Rosenhan study classified as?
Naturalistic, covert, participant
## Footnote
The study involved pseudo-patients observing real hospital settings.
221
What is one ethical issue in the Rosenhan study?
Deception of hospital staff who thought the pseudo-patients were genuine patients
## Footnote
Consent was not obtained prior to the study.
222
What are the learning objectives of this lesson?
To identify and outline the different types of observational design, to evaluate the different types of observational design, to be able to answer exam questions relating to the above.
223
What is a behavioural category?
When a target behaviour is broken up into components that are observable and measurable (operationalisation).
224
What is event sampling?
A target behaviour or event is first established then records it every time it occurs.
225
What is time sampling?
Involves recording behaviour within a pre-established time frame.
226
Identify one strength of using behavioural categories.
Increased reliability - easy to replicate, all researchers looking for the same behaviour.
227
Identify one weakness of using behavioural categories.
Loss of validity - miss out other key behaviours.
228
What is the difference between structured and unstructured observations?
Structured observation uses behavioural categories; unstructured observation involves writing down what the researcher sees.
229
What is inter-rater reliability?
When more than one observer (rater) is present and they use the same behavioural categories to compare their scores.
230
How can observers ensure their results are reliable?
If their scores are similar, the results are reliable; if different, changes need to be made to their categories.
231
Fill in the blank: A structured observation makes use of _______.
behavioural categories.
232
What should observers do before research begins regarding behavioural categories?
Ensure they have included all the ways the target behaviour may occur within their behavioural categories.
233
What is operationalisation?
Clear identification/definition of the observable actions/behaviours to be recorded.
234
True or False: Behavioural categories should be vague to allow for interpretation.
False.
235
What is the purpose of a pilot study in observational research?
To check cameras were positioned appropriately and the suitability of the behavioural categories.
236
List two observable behaviours that could represent 'type of work'.
* Making notes
* Using a laptop
* Reading a book.
237
What is the main goal of using behavioural categories in observations?
To produce a structured record of what a researcher sees/hears.
238
What might observers need before conducting the final study?
More training.
239
What is an example task related to aggression in a playground?
Complete the categories of behaviour for an observation investigating aggressive behaviour.
240
What should observers do if they find discrepancies in their observations?
Make changes to their behavioural categories.
