Memory Flashcards
(215 cards)
1
Q
What is the definition of DURATION in memory?
A
The length of time information can be held in memory.
Duration refers to how long information can be retained before it fades.
2
Q
What does CAPACITY refer to in the context of memory?
A
The amount of information a store can hold at any one time.
Capacity indicates how much data can be stored in a memory system.
3
Q
Define CODING in memory.
A
The form in which information is stored.
Coding involves the transformation of information into a format suitable for storage.
4
Q
What is the capacity of the Sensory Register?
A
Unlimited
The Sensory Register can hold a vast amount of information from sensory inputs.
5
Q
What is the duration of the Sensory Register?
A
Limited
Information in the Sensory Register lasts only a few seconds.
6
Q
How is information stored in the Sensory Register?
A
Unprocessed
Information is retained in its raw form without any transformation.
7
Q
Identify the two main parts of the Sensory Register.
A
The iconic store and the echoic store.
The iconic store holds visual information, while the echoic store holds auditory information.
8
Q
What is the capacity of Short-Term Memory (STM)?
A
7 +/- 2 items
This implies that STM can typically hold between 5 to 9 items.
9
Q
What is the duration of Short-Term Memory (STM)?
A
18-30 seconds
STM has a limited time frame for retaining information.
10
Q
How is information coded in Short-Term Memory (STM)?
A
Acoustic
STM processes information primarily through sound.
11
Q
What is the capacity of Long-Term Memory (LTM)?
A
Unlimited
LTM can store an indefinite amount of information.
12
Q
What is the duration of Long-Term Memory (LTM)?
A
Lifelong
LTM can retain information for an entire lifetime.
13
Q
How is information coded in Long-Term Memory (LTM)?
A
Semantic
LTM encodes information based on its meaning.
14
Q
What are the three stores of the Multi-Store Model of Memory (MSM)?
A
Sensory Register, Short-Term Memory (STM), Long-Term Memory (LTM)
The MSM outlines the flow of information through these distinct memory stores.
15
Q
What is maintenance rehearsal in STM?
A
Repeating information to store it for a limited time.
This technique helps keep information active in STM.
16
Q
What is elaborative rehearsal?
A
Thinking about the meaning of the information in STM.
This process facilitates the transfer of information to LTM.
17
Q
True or False: The features of each memory store in the MSM are the same.
A
False
Each store has distinct features in terms of capacity, duration, and coding.
18
Q
What is trace decay in memory?
A
The fading of information when not attended to.
This phenomenon explains how memories can be lost over time without reinforcement.
19
Q
What is the independent variable in the STM duration study?
A
Duration of the delay (6 seconds vs. 20 seconds)
This variable affects how much information can be recalled from STM.
20
Q
What is the dependent variable in the STM duration study?
A
Number of words recalled
This measures the effectiveness of memory retention under different conditions.
21
Q
What does the term ‘participant variables’ refer to?
A
Differences between participants that may affect results.
These can include age, gender, or social background.
22
Q
Identify the two types of rehearsal mentioned.
A
Maintenance rehearsal, Elaborative rehearsal
These techniques are used to retain information in STM and transfer it to LTM.
23
Q
What is the significance of the Sperling study?
A
It measured the capacity and duration of the sensory register.
The study demonstrated that sensory memory can capture a lot of information but fades quickly.
24
Q
What is the format of information in the iconic store?
A
Visual information
The iconic store retains images for less than a second.
25
What is the format of information in the echoic store?
Auditory information
## Footnote
The echoic store retains sounds for a few seconds.
26
What is the Multi-Store Model of Memory (MSM)?
A model that describes memory as consisting of three distinct stores: sensory memory, short-term memory (STM), and long-term memory (LTM).
27
What is the primacy effect?
The tendency to remember the first items in a list better than those in the middle.
28
What is the recency effect?
The tendency to remember the most recently presented items in a list better than those presented earlier.
29
How does the MSM explain the primacy and recency effects?
Primacy effect is linked to long-term memory (LTM) due to rehearsal, while recency effect is linked to short-term memory (STM) as the items are still active.
30
What type of memory are flashbulb memories?
Vivid, highly detailed memories of surprising events that can be recalled easily without rehearsal.
31
Are flashbulb memories a strength or limitation of the MSM?
Limitation, as they suggest that information can be transferred to LTM without rehearsal, contradicting the MSM's emphasis on rehearsal.
32
What is anterograde amnesia?
The inability to create new memories after the onset of amnesia.
33
What is retrograde amnesia?
The loss of memories from before the onset of amnesia.
34
What condition does Clive Wearing suffer from?
He suffers from both anterograde and retrograde amnesia.
35
What are procedural memories?
Memories for how we do things, such as riding a bike or reading a book, which become automatic through practice.
36
What are semantic memories?
Memories of facts or knowledge, which can be concrete or abstract.
37
What are episodic memories?
Personal memories of events, such as experiences or significant moments in an individual's life.
38
What is the typical digit span considered normal for STM?
7 +/- 2 items.
39
What is the duration of short-term memory (STM)?
Up to 30 seconds.
40
What is the duration of long-term memory (LTM)?
Can last a lifetime.
41
Fill in the blank: The capacity of STM is ________.
limited.
42
Fill in the blank: The MSM suggests that memory stores are ________.
unitary.
43
How does Glanzer & Cunitz's research support the MSM?
It demonstrates that STM and LTM are separate stores through the observation of the primacy and recency effects.
44
Why is Clive Wearing a limitation of the MSM?
His case shows that STM and LTM can be affected differently, supporting the idea of separate memory stores.
45
What is the main criticism of the MSM regarding rehearsal?
It overemphasizes the role of rehearsal in transferring information to LTM.
46
What does the term 'unitary stores' mean in the context of the MSM?
It means that each type of memory store functions independently.
47
What are the characteristics of sensory memory?
Includes brief retention of sensory information, high capacity, and short duration.
48
What are the characteristics of short-term memory (STM)?
Limited capacity (7 +/- 2 items), duration up to 30 seconds, and primarily acoustic coding.
49
What are the characteristics of long-term memory (LTM)?
Unlimited capacity, long duration, and can be coded semantically.
50
How does information enter STM?
Through attention to sensory input.
51
How does information stay in STM?
Through rehearsal.
52
How does information transfer into LTM?
Through prolonged rehearsal or meaningful associations.
53
True or False: Flashbulb memories support the MSM's emphasis on rehearsal.
False.
54
What is the coding, capacity, and duration of the sensory memory?
Coding: Sensory; Capacity: Unlimited; Duration: Very brief (milliseconds).
55
What is the coding, capacity, and duration of the Short Term Memory (STM)?
Coding: Acoustic; Capacity: 7±2 items; Duration: Up to 30 seconds.
56
What is the coding, capacity, and duration of the Long Term Memory (LTM)?
Coding: Semantic; Capacity: Unlimited; Duration: Potentially a lifetime.
57
How do memories transfer between sensory memory and STM?
Through attention.
58
How is the duration and capacity of the STM extended?
Through rehearsal.
59
How do memories transfer between STM and LTM?
Through encoding.
60
What is the first claim of the Multi-Store Model of Memory (MSM)?
Memory consists of three stores: sensory memory, short term memory, and long term memory.
61
What is the second claim of the Multi-Store Model of Memory (MSM)?
Each store has different coding, capacity, and duration.
62
What are the four main components of the Working Memory Model (WMM)?
* Central Executive
* Phonological Loop
* Visuospatial Sketchpad
* Episodic Buffer
63
What is the role of the Central Executive in the WMM?
It supervises and allocates attention to tasks.
64
What does the Phonological Loop (PL) process?
Auditory information.
65
What are the two subdivisions of the Phonological Loop?
* Phonological Store
* Articulatory Process
66
What is the role of the Visuospatial Sketchpad (VSS)?
Stores visual and spatial information.
67
What are the two subdivisions of the Visuospatial Sketchpad?
* Visual Cache
* Inner Scribe
68
What is the function of the Episodic Buffer?
Integrates information from different stores and maintains a sense of time-sequencing.
69
Fill in the blank: The WMM suggests that STM is not ______ but consists of separate components.
unitary
70
True or False: The WMM allows for dual-task performance without interference when tasks are visual and auditory.
True
71
What did Baddeley et al (1973) find regarding dual-task performance?
Participants could track a light and complete a verbal task simultaneously.
72
What does the case study of KF suggest about the WMM?
It supports the existence of separate visual and acoustic memory stores.
73
What is a limitation of studying STM according to the WMM?
It has low ecological validity and limited duration for testing.
74
What does PET scan research suggest about the WMM?
Different brain areas are activated for visual and auditory tasks.
75
Fill in the blank: The Central Executive is difficult to study because it has ______ evidence.
limited
76
What is an example task for the Phonological Loop?
Repeating words aloud.
77
What is an example task for the Visuospatial Sketchpad?
Visualizing the layout of a room.
78
What are the two executive functions of the Central Executive aside from directing information?
* Dividing attention
* Limiting attention
79
Fill in the blank: The model suggests that listening to instrumental music should ______ performance on acoustic tasks.
impair
80
What are the three components of the working memory model?
Central executive, phonological loop, visuo-spatial sketchpad
## Footnote
Each component has specific roles in processing information.
81
What is the role of the central executive?
Supervisory function controlling slave systems with limited capacity
## Footnote
It processes information from any sensory modality and is involved in higher mental processes.
82
What is an example task for the phonological loop?
Remembering a phone number until it is dialed
## Footnote
The phonological loop holds verbal information temporarily.
83
What is the function of the visuo-spatial sketchpad?
Holds visual and spatial information temporarily
## Footnote
It is used when visualizing tasks, such as counting windows.
84
Fill in the blank: The phonological loop can be divided into the _______ and the articulatory process.
phonological store
85
What is the difference between the articulatory loop and the phonological store?
The articulatory loop allows for maintenance rehearsal; the phonological store stores spoken words
## Footnote
The articulatory process is also known as the inner voice.
86
True or False: The visuo-spatial sketchpad can handle two visual tasks simultaneously without competition.
False
## Footnote
Competing visual tasks require the same limited resources.
87
What happens when a visual task and a verbal task are performed simultaneously?
Different components are used, increasing capacity
## Footnote
This allows for better performance compared to two visual tasks.
88
What are the two executive functions of the central executive besides directing information?
Attention management and information retrieval from long-term memory
## Footnote
These functions enhance cognitive flexibility.
89
What type of tasks would activate the phonological loop?
Learning/repeating words, speaking, reading
## Footnote
These tasks involve auditory processing.
90
What type of tasks would activate the visuo-spatial sketchpad?
Visualizing images, mentally counting windows, watching DVDs
## Footnote
These tasks involve visual processing.
91
Fill in the blank: The capacity of the phonological loop is what can be said in _______ seconds.
2
92
What is a strength of the working memory model?
Supported by evidence from Baddeley et al (1973) and case studies
## Footnote
PET scans also provide support for its validity.
93
What is a limitation of the working memory model?
Little is known about the central executive
## Footnote
Studying short-term memory (STM) is complex.
94
Fill in the blank: The visuo-spatial sketchpad includes the inner ______ and the visual cache.
scribe
95
What does the visuo-spatial sketchpad do?
Stores and manipulates visual and spatial information
## Footnote
It is active during visual tasks.
96
True or False: The working memory model explains STM as a more passive process than the multi-store model.
False
## Footnote
The WMM describes STM as an active process.
97
What does the dual-task method demonstrate about the working memory model?
Different components can operate simultaneously without interference
## Footnote
This supports the idea of multiple memory systems.
98
What are the three types of long-term memory (LTM)?
Episodic, Semantic, Procedural
99
Define episodic memory.
A long term memory store for personal events, including when events occurred and the people, objects, places, and behaviors involved.
100
Provide an example of episodic memory.
A gig you went to or your last Psychology lesson.
101
Define semantic memory.
A long term memory store for our knowledge of the world, including facts and meanings of words and concepts.
102
Provide an example of semantic memory.
The taste of an orange or what the capital of Germany is.
103
Define procedural memory.
A long term memory store for knowledge of actions and skills, which can usually be recalled without conscious effort.
104
Provide an example of procedural memory.
How to ride a bike.
105
What is a key difference between episodic and procedural memory?
Episodic memories are typically recalled with conscious effort, while procedural memories can be recalled without conscious effort.
106
What type of memory is associated with the temporal lobe?
Episodic memory.
107
What type of memory is associated with the cerebellum?
Procedural memory.
108
True or False: Semantic memories can be expressed verbally.
True.
109
True or False: Procedural memories are declarative.
False.
110
What does the case study of Clive Wearing suggest about LTM?
It provides evidence that LTM is divided into separate stores located in different areas of the brain.
111
What is a limitation of research into LTM such as Clive Wearing?
Lack of control over variables due to unexpected brain injuries.
112
Fill in the blank: Procedural memories are difficult to explain verbally because they are _______.
non-declarative
113
Fill in the blank: Episodic memories can be expressed verbally because they are _______.
declarative
114
What is the function of the hippocampus in relation to LTM?
It is involved in forming new semantic and episodic memories.
115
What type of memory may be more resistant to forgetting?
Procedural memory.
116
List the three areas of the brain associated with the three types of LTM.
* Temporal lobe
* Hippocampus
* Cerebellum
117
What research supports the theory that LTM is not unitary?
Tulving's (1989) research and case studies like Clive Wearing.
118
True or False: Each type of memory resides in the same area of the brain.
False.
119
What is the difference in recall effort between episodic and procedural memories?
Episodic requires conscious effort; procedural does not.
120
What is interference in the context of forgetting?
Forgetting because one memory blocks the recall of another, causing one or both memories to be forgotten.
121
What are the two types of interference?
* Proactive interference
* Retroactive interference
122
Define proactive interference
Forgetting occurs when older memories disrupt the recall of newer memories.
123
Give an example of proactive interference
A teacher has learned so many names in the past that she has difficulty remembering the names of her current class.
124
Define retroactive interference
Forgetting occurs when newer memories disrupt the recall of older memories already stored.
125
Give an example of retroactive interference
A teacher has learned so many new names that she has difficulty remembering the names of the students last year.
126
What is the role of cues in retrieval failure?
Cues are 'triggers' of information that allow us to access a memory.
127
What is retrieval failure?
A form of forgetting that occurs when we don’t have the necessary cues to access memory.
128
What are context-dependent and state-dependent forgetting?
* Context-dependent forgetting: Relevant cues in the environment are missing during recall.
* State-dependent forgetting: Psychological or physiological differences affect recall.
129
What does context-dependent forgetting involve?
Missing relevant cues in the environment during recall that were present when learning.
130
What does state-dependent forgetting involve?
Differences in psychological or physiological states between learning and recalling information.
131
What is an example of context-dependent forgetting?
If you used a certain pen to write the information and then didn't have that same pen during the exam.
132
What is an example of state-dependent forgetting?
Participants who felt happy while learning and recalled in a happy state remembered more than those who felt sad during recall.
133
What is the impact of proactive interference on memory recall?
It causes forgetting of new information due to interference from old memories.
134
What is the impact of retroactive interference on memory recall?
It causes forgetting of old information due to interference from new memories.
135
What did Baddeley and Hitch (1977) study about interference?
They found that accurate recall did not depend on how long ago matches took place but rather on the number of games played in between.
136
What is the Independent Variable (IV) in Postman's (1960) study?
Whether participants learned a second list of words or not.
137
What is the Dependent Variable (DV) in Postman's (1960) study?
The number of words accurately recalled from the original list.
138
What type of experimental design was used in Postman's (1960) study?
Independent groups design because participants were split into two groups.
139
Fill in the blank: Retrieval failure occurs when we don’t have the necessary cues to _______.
[access memory]
140
True or False: Retrieval failure suggests that the information is not available in memory.
False. It suggests that the information is available but not accessible.
141
Outline one explanation of forgetting related to retrieval failure.
Retrieval failure suggests that forgetting occurs when the cues available at encoding and retrieval are different or absent.
142
What is the DV of the experiment discussed?
How many words were correctly recalled.
143
What was the IV of the first experiment?
Whether participants recalled the words in the same or different context to where they originally learned the words.
144
In which conditions was accuracy of recall lower in the first study?
Conditions 2 and 3.
145
Why was accuracy of recall lower in conditions 2 and 3?
Absence of relevant cues to help with recall.
146
What leads to retrieval failure according to the first experiment?
When the external cues available at learning are different from the ones at recall.
147
Is the first experiment an example of context-dependent or state-dependent forgetting?
Context-dependent forgetting.
148
What did Godden & Baddeley (1975) find regarding recall in different contexts?
Accurate recall was 40% lower when participants were asked to recall words in a different context.
149
What is a strength of the retrieval failure theory?
It is supported by research.
150
What is a counterargument regarding the ecological validity of the first study?
Tasks like learning and recalling a list of words is not an everyday task.
151
What was the IV of the second experiment?
Whether the participants were still high at the time of looking for the money or not.
152
What was the DV of the second experiment?
Whether participants found the money or not.
153
In the second experiment, who had lower accuracy of recall?
Those who were no longer high.
154
Is the second experiment an example of context-dependent or state-dependent forgetting?
State-dependent forgetting.
155
What is context-dependent forgetting?
Where relevant cues in the environment are missing at the time of recall.
156
What is state-dependent forgetting?
Where there are psychological or physiological differences between encoding and recall.
157
What suggestion does Baddeley make for recalling information?
Try to recall the environment in which it was learnt.
158
What practical applications does retrieval failure theory have?
Useful for eyewitness interviews and student exam preparation.
159
What causes retrieval failure?
Not having the necessary cues to access memory.
160
What does the absence of cues lead to?
Retrieval failure.
161
Fill in the blank: Retrieval failure is a form of _______.
[forgetting]
162
Fill in the blank: Context-dependent forgetting occurs when relevant cues in the _______ are missing.
[environment]
163
Fill in the blank: State-dependent forgetting involves psychological or physiological differences between how you felt when _______ and when recalling.
[learning]
164
What is proactive interference?
Old memories disrupt new.
165
What is retroactive interference?
New memories disrupt old.
166
What is eyewitness testimony (EWT)?
The ability of people to remember the details of events, such as accidents and crimes, which they themselves have observed.
167
What factors can affect the accuracy of EWT?
* Misleading information
* Leading questions
* Anxiety
168
Why is the accuracy of EWT important?
People can be wrongfully convicted of crimes based on it, potentially leading to severe penalties including the death penalty.
169
What percentage of wrongfully convicted individuals had their convictions based on incorrect EWT evidence?
75%
170
What is the Yerkes-Dodson Law?
Moderate anxiety is associated with better recall than very high or very low anxiety.
171
What is weapon focus?
A witness's attention is focused on any weapon used in an incident, reducing the ability to accurately identify the perpetrator.
172
What are the emotional and physical changes associated with anxiety?
* Worried thoughts
* Feelings of tension
* Increased heart rate
* Sweatiness
173
What did Johnson and Scott find regarding accuracy in identifying a man with a pen versus a knife?
Mean accuracy was 49% in the pen condition and 33% in the knife condition.
174
What did Yuille and Cutshall find regarding accuracy in real-life witnesses under stress?
Mean accuracy was 88% in the most stressed witnesses and 75% in the least stressed witnesses.
175
What is a potential effect of high anxiety on eyewitness recall?
It may lead to less accurate recall.
176
Fill in the blank: The ability of witnesses to provide accurate identification is reduced due to _______.
[weapon focus]
177
True or False: High levels of anxiety always improve the accuracy of EWT.
False
178
What is the significance of researching EWT?
To ensure only the guilty are convicted and to prevent wrongful convictions based on incorrect evidence.
179
Describe the outcome of Ronald Cotton's case.
He was wrongfully convicted, spent 10 years in prison, and was exonerated by DNA evidence.
180
What is the importance of the Burlington Police Department in Cotton's case?
They turned over evidence that led to DNA testing proving Cotton's innocence.
181
What did Cotton receive from the state for his wrongful conviction?
$110,000
182
What kind of studies should be outlined and evaluated regarding EWT and anxiety?
Studies that investigate the influence of anxiety on the accuracy of eyewitness testimony.
183
What kind of emotional state is associated with anxiety?
A state of emotional and physical arousal.
184
What is misleading information?
Incorrect information given to the eyewitness usually after the event
## Footnote
Often referred to as 'post-event' information, it can take many forms, such as leading questions and post-event discussions.
185
What is a leading question?
A question which suggests a certain answer due to its phrasing
## Footnote
Example: 'How old was the youth in the photograph?' implies the subject is young.
186
Give an example of a leading question.
Did you see the broken glass?
## Footnote
This question implies that there was broken glass present.
187
What is the impact of post-event discussion?
It may influence the accuracy of each witness’s recall of the event
## Footnote
Occurs when there is more than one witness discussing what they have seen.
188
Who is Elizabeth Loftus?
An American cognitive psychologist and expert on human memory
## Footnote
She was ranked as the most influential female psychologist of the 20th century.
189
What might affect the accuracy of witness statements after an event?
Post-event discussion and leading questions
## Footnote
Factors like media coverage or conversations with other witnesses can also play a role.
190
Fill in the blank: A leading question can lead to _______ in eyewitness testimony.
misleading information
191
True or False: Leading questions can improve the accuracy of eyewitness testimony.
False
## Footnote
Leading questions often distort the memory of the eyewitness.
192
What is the difference between 'contacted' and 'smashed' in eyewitness questioning?
'Smashed' suggests a higher speed and severity than 'contacted'
## Footnote
Different wording can alter perceptions of the event.
193
What is the independent variable (IV) in the experiment regarding eyewitness questioning?
The wording of the questions asked to the eyewitness
## Footnote
Different terms used can affect perceptions of speed or severity.
194
What is the dependent variable (DV) in the experiment regarding eyewitness questioning?
The eyewitness's perception of the speed of the cars
## Footnote
This is measured based on their responses to the questions.
195
Describe the potential essay question related to misleading information.
'Describe and evaluate research into the influence of misleading information on the accuracy of eyewitness testimony'
## Footnote
This question could require both theoretical and study-based responses.
196
What does AO1 refer to in the context of essay writing?
A/M/R/C of study and just R/C of the second study if two
## Footnote
A clear structure is important for presenting research findings.
197
What does AO3 refer to in the context of essay writing?
Study PEE vs theory PEE
## Footnote
Both perspectives are relevant to the evaluation of the topic.
198
List the types of questions that can lead to misleading information.
* Leading questions
* Post-event discussions
* Specific phrasing of questions
## Footnote
Each type can influence how witnesses recall events.
199
What is a schema?
A mental framework of beliefs and expectations that influence cognitive processing. They are developed from experience.
200
Define cognitive interview.
A method of interviewing eyewitnesses to help them retrieve more accurate memories.
201
What are retrieval cues?
Anything that helps retrieve information from long-term memory (LTM).
202
List the four main techniques used in cognitive interviews.
* Context reinstatement
* Report everything
* Recall in reverse order
* Recall from a changed perspective
203
What is context reinstatement in cognitive interviews?
Questions that require witnesses to mentally recreate an image of the situation, including environmental details and emotional state.
204
Why does context reinstatement work?
It provides more possible retrieval cues for the memory of the crime.
205
What does report everything entail in cognitive interviews?
Witnesses report all details about the event, even if they seem unimportant.
206
Why is reporting everything effective?
Small details may act as retrieval cues and help recall significant information.
207
Explain the technique of recall in reverse order.
Witnesses recall the scene in a different chronological order to prevent expectations from influencing their account.
208
What is the purpose of recalling from a changed perspective?
To disrupt the effect of expectations and schema on recall.
209
Compare standard interviews and cognitive interviews.
* Standard interviews: Free recall of event, specific questions, less effective
* Cognitive interviews: Recall in context, wider questions, more accurate
210
What is the Enhanced Cognitive Interview?
An interview technique that reduces witness anxiety and allows the witness to control the flow of information.
211
What should be avoided in the Enhanced Cognitive Interview?
* Direct questions
* Interruptions
212
What is a potential problem with the Enhanced Cognitive Interview?
It increases the amount of inaccurate information recalled.
213
What did Kohnken et al (1999) find regarding the Enhanced Cognitive Interview?
An 81% increase of correct information but also a 61% increase of incorrect information (false positives).
214
True or False: The Enhanced Cognitive Interview is always practical for police investigations.
False
215
Fill in the blank: The cognitive interview may not be entirely useful because a lot of _______ will arise.
[inaccurate information]
