Approaches in Psychology Flashcards
(106 cards)
1
Q
Wundt
A
- Studied the mind in a scientific way by breaking down behaviours into their basic elements, known as structuralism
- Wundt only studied those aspects of human behaviour that could be strictly controlled under controlled experimental conditions
- Wundt known as ‘the father of psychology’ – moved from philosophical roots to controlled research.
- Set up the first psychology laboratory in Leipzig, Germany in 1879
2
Q
What was the first assumption of Wundt’s new approach to psychology?
A
All behaviour is seen as being caused
3
Q
What was the second assumption of Wundt’s new approach to psychology?
A
If behaviour is determined then we can predict how humans would behave in different conditions
4
Q
What did Wundt used introspection for?
A
To investigate the human mind
5
Q
How did Wundt establish psychology as a science?
A
By using the scientific method
6
Q
Introspection
A
- Participants were asked to reflect on their own cognitive processes
- Wundt believed that with sufficient training, mental processes such as perception and memory could be observed systematically
- Focus on being objective
- Reflection on sensations, feelings and images
7
Q
Evaluation of Introspection- non- observable (1)
WEAKNESS
A
- Relies on non- observable responses
- E.g we are not always consciously aware of our attitudes
- Can’t tell us everything about conscious processes
8
Q
Evaluation of Introspection-Subjective (2)
WEAKNESS
A
- Produced data that was subjective
- E.g experimental results are NOT reliably reproduced by other researchers
- Showing it is unreliable
9
Q
Evaluation of Introspection- Generalised (3)
STRENGTH
A
- Can be generalised to all human beings
- E.g behaviourists such as Pavlov were achieving reliabily reproducible results
- Showing classical and operant conditioning
10
Q
Key assumptions of the Psychodynamic approach
A
- Unconscious processes, of which we are unaware, determine or drive our behaviour
- Personality has 3 parts: the id, ego and superego
- Early childhood experiences also determine adult personality
11
Q
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Key assumptions of the Psychodynamic approach (2) (4 POINTS)
A
The importance of the UNCONSCIOUS mind
- According to the psychodynamic theory, we have an ‘unconscious’ mind which influences our behaviour
- Our CONSCIOUS mind is unaware of what thoughts and emotions occur in the UNCONSCIOUS
- These UNCONSCIOUS thoughts and feelings can have an effect on our CONSCIOUS mind
- Most of our everyday actions are not controlled consciously but are the product of the UNCONSCIOUS mind
12
Q
The conscious, preconscious and unconscious
A
- The conscious- the small amount of mental activity (e.g thoughts and perceptions)
- The preconscious- Things we could be aware of if we wanted or tried (e.g memories, may become aware of during dreams or slips of the tongue)
- The unconscious- Things we are unaware of and can not become aware of (e.g instincts, deeply buried memories, biological drives)
13
Q
Accessing the unconscious mind
A
There are ways of accessing the unconscious mind despite being unaware of what happens:
1. Dream analysis- repressed ideas in the unconscious are more likely to appear in dreams than when we are awake. Freud referred to these ideas as the latent content of dreams
- Therapist interprets the dreams in order to provide insight about what the dream really represents- through the unconscious
14
Q
Free association
A
- Individual is encouraged to relax and say anything that comes into their mind, no matter how absurd
- Hypnosis- gets you into a very relaxed stage: Stage 1 of sleep but can still respond- unconscious can reveal itself
- Once verbalised, the therapist can interpret and explain
- Slips of the tongue or Freudian slips can reveal what’s in our unconscious
15
Q
Freud described personality as tripartite composed of three parts:
A
- Behaviour is seen to be the result of a compromise between the three parts of the psyche (personality)- Id, ego, superego
- experiences in childhood shape the development of the 3 parts affecting how a person behaves
16
Q
The Id (4 points)
Devil
A
- “Selfish beast” part of the personality
- It is contained in the unconscious part of the mind
- Operates according to the “pleasure principle” and demands immediate gratification
- Develops from birth
17
Q
The Superego (6 points)
Angel
A
- Is the conscience and ego ideal
- It continues to insist that we do the right thing
- Opposes the idea of the id
- Enforces moral restrictions and battles against id impulses
- Causes feelings of guilt
- Develops later in childhood through identification with one or other parent, at which point the child internalises the moral rules and social norms of society
18
Q
The ego (4 points)
A
- Executive of the personality
- Uses its cognitive abilities to manage and control the id and balance its desires against the restrictions of REALITY and the superego
- Operates according to the “reality principle”- balances 2 demands
- Defends itself from id- superego struggles via various defence mechanisms
19
Q
The balance between the id and the superego
A
- Ego needs to balance the demands of the id and the superego- if it fails it may result in conflicts and psychological disorders
20
Q
Defence mechanisms
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- Ego uses many defence mechanisms to protect it from id- superego conflicts or anxiety
- They work unconsciously and distort reality so that anxiety is reduced
- 3 types: repression, denial, displacement
21
Q
Repression
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- Forcing a distressing memory from the conscious mind
22
Q
Denial
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- Refusing to believe something because it is too painful to acknowledge the truth
23
Q
Displacement
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- Transferring feelings from true source of distressing emotion onto a substitute target
24
Q
Evaluation of defence mechanisms
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STRENGTH:
- Has intuitive appeal
- Appeal to us
- We have experience
- Most people can appreciate the idea of denial, repression, displacement
WEAKNESS:
- Cannot be falsified
- Can’t prove/ can’t see things in unconscious
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Key assumptions of the Psychosexual development
- Psychodynamic theory states that **events** in our **CHILDHOOD** have a **great influence** on our **ADULT lives**, shaping our personality
- Events that occur in **CHILDHOOD** can remain in the unconscious, and cause problems as ADULTS
- Freud proposed that all children go through the 5 stages of development
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Psychosexual development
- Children pass through a series of age- dependent stages during development
- Each stage has a designate "pleasure zone"- particularly sensitive area of the body
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Psychosexual stages
- Oral
- Anal
- Phallic
- Latency
- Genital
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Psychosexual stages- description and consequence of unresolved conflict- ORAL
- 0-1 years
- Focus of pleasure is the mouth, mother's breast can be the object of desire
- Oral fixation- smoking, biting nails, sarcastic, critical
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Psychosexual stages- description and consequence of unresolved conflict- ANAL
- 1-3 years
- Focus of pleasure is the anus, child gains pleasure from withholding and expelling faeces
- Anal retentive- perfectionist, obsessive, Anal expulsive- thoughtless, messy
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Psychosexual stages- description and consequence of unresolved conflict- PHALLIC
- 3-6 years
- Focus of pleasure is the genital area
- Phallic personality- narcissistic, reckless
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Psychosexual stages- description and consequence of unresolved conflict- LATENCY
- Earlier conflicts are repressed
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Psychosexual stages- description and consequence of unresolved conflict- GENITAL
- Sexual desires become **conscious** alongside the onset of puberty
- Difficulty forming **heterosexual relationships**
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Freud's case study and Oedipus complex
- In the *phallic* stage, Freud claimed that little boys develop incestuous feelings towards their mother and a murderous hatred for their father (Oedipus complex)
- Fearing that their father will castrate them, boys **repress** their feelings for their mother and **identify** with their father, taking on his **gender role** **and moral views**
- Freud also suggested that girls of the same age experience penis envy: they desire their father- as the penis the primary love object- and hate their mother (Electra complex)
- Although Freud was less clear on the process in girls, they are thought to give up the desire for their father and replace this with a desire for a baby (identifying with their mother in the process)- phallic fixation
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Evaluation of psychosexual stages
- Weakness- Focuses on male development
- E.g gender bias
- Only explain half human race
..........................................................................................
- Weakness- Not based on empirical data
- E.g it's not data that we can see + measure- buried in unconscious
- is **unscientific**
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Therapy- psychoanalysis
- Therapy benefits through release of pent- up tensions (aggression, anxiety), "catharsis"- something is a release- STRENGTH
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Evaluation of Psychodynamic approach
- *STRENGTH*: **Holistic**- trauma in childhood. Takes into account biology and learning
- *STRENGTH*: Has **real- world application**- psychoanalysis- release of pent- up tensions
- *WEAKNESS*: **Deterministic**- adult behaviour is caused by things that happened in childhood- no free will- psychic determinism
- *WEAKNESS*: Case studies are **subjective** and **open to bias**. E.g Freud used Little Hans to support the Oedipus complex- showing it is unscientific
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# ***
Little Hans- Supporting study- psychodynamic approach and Oedipus complex
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- Freud supported his *concept* of the Oedipus complex with his case study of Little Hans
- Hans was a 5 year old boy who developed a **phobia of horses after seeing one collapse in the street**
- Freud suggested that Hans phobia was a form of **displacement** in which his **repressed fear of his father was transferred onto horses**
- Horses were merely a symbolic representation of **Hans real world unconscious fear**- the **fear of castration experienced during the Oedipus complex**
## Footnote
Horse represented Hans father, father assured him he wasn't going to castrate him
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Humanistic approach
- Humanism was intended to offer a **less deterministic approach**
- Theories are concerned with **human experiences**, **freedom** and **choice**
- Human- centered
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Free Will
- Human beings are **self- determining** and have **free will**
- This does not mean that people are **not affected by external or internal *influences*** but we are **active agents** who have the ability to **determine our own DEVELOPMENT**
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Abraham Maslow
- Believed humans are **motivated** by **needs** beyond those of basic biological survival
- *Fundamental* to *human nature* is the *desire* to **grow** and **develop** to **achieve** our potential- "self- acutalisation"
- Maslow's hierachy of needs ranges from **basic** needs to **higher level psychological** and **actualisation needs**
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Motivation- Maslow's hierachy
| Starts at the bottom- have things at bottom before having the top things
1. **Self- actualisation**- morality, creativity, spontaneity, problem solving, lack of prejudice, acceptance of facts- Humans are driven to self- actualisation (6)
2. **Esteem**- Self- esteem, confidence, achievement, respect of others, respect by others. (1st 2 are more advanced levels- not everyone is at this level) (5)
3. **Love/ Belonging**- Friendship, family, sexual intimacy- Only seek a relationship if safety and physiological are fulfilled (3)
4. **Safety**- Security of body, of employment, of resources, of morality, of family, of health, of property- (Meaning somewhere to live, don't feel threatened, healthy) (7)
5. **Physiological**- Breathing, food, water, sex, sleep, homeostasis (Keeping body at healthy functioning level), exctretion- Basic needs, primary physiological drive- if these are fulfilled we move up to next level (7)
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Carl Rogers
- Points out that individuals **strive to achieve their ideal selves** because they are **motivated towards self- improvement**
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Focus on the self
1. **Self- image**- How we see ourselves which includes a mixture of physical characteristics, personality traits, social roles
2. **Self esteem**- How much you value yourself- how we compare ourselves to others. (If the person you want to be in 6 months is different to the person you are now- bad self- image)
3. **Ideal self**- How you wish/ hope you could be- (the way we see ourselves and how we would like to see ourselves do not quite match up)
Congruence- whether person you are now is the same person you want to be
Incongruence- whether person you are now is different to the person you want to be
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Conditions of worth
- Humans have a **basic need** to **feel nurtured and valued** by **significant people in their lives**, e.g parents
- If this is given **FREELY**, **without conditions** (unconditional positive regard), then people develop a **healthy sense of self- worth**, recognising their **abilities and difficulties**
- Children who receive **negative regard**, e.g criticism and blame, or who are **set conditions of worth** develop **low self- esteem**
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A sense of well- being
- A **healthy sense of wellbeing** is **established** if an **individual** **maintains** a **reasonable consistency** between **ideal self and actual behaviour- congruence**
- If **ideal self** and **actual self** is CONGRUENT = **HIGH self- esteem**
- If **ideal self** and **actual self** is INCONGRUENT = **LOW self- esteem**
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The influence on counselling psychology
- To **reduce** the **gap** between **self- concept and the ideal self**- Rogers developed **Client- Centered therapy**
- **An effective therapist is able to provide clients with the unconditional positive regard they had FAILED to receive as children**
- **Study the individual case- IDIOGRAPHIC Approach**
- **Average performance of groups -NOMOTHETIC approach**
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Evaluation of Humanistic Approach
- *STRENGTH*: Holistic- looking at individual
- *STRENGTH*: Not deterministic- emphasises free will and choices. E.g human beings are self- determining and have free will
- *STRENGTH*: Has real- world application- client- centered therapy- dissolves conditions of worth
- *WEAKNESS*: Unscientific- not trying to make generalised principles
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# ???
Limitations of Humanistic Approach
- Use of qualitative techniques has been questioned- reject experimental methods because they do not believe we can create generalised principles about humans- UNSCIENTIFIC
- Little empirical research has been carried out- not measurable and unachievable
- Not all cultures share the assumption that individual achievement brings fulfilment- working for good of group- self- actualisation isn't worthy in collectivist cultures.
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Learning Theory/ Behaviourism
- **Has a** *scientific approach* as it is based on **observation** and **measurement** within a laboratory
- **Normal and abnormal behaviour** is learnt- either Classical Conditioning and Operant Conditioning
- **Approach states all behaviour** is LEARNT. We are all born as blank slates. Not interested in cognitions or emotions because they cannot be seen. Mainly study animals because think learning is the same in all species- generalise animals to humans
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Classical Conditioning in Pavlov's Dogs
1. UCS (food) = UCR (salivation)
2. UCS (food) + NS (bell) = UCR (salivation)
3. CS (bell) = CR (salivation)
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Classical Conditioning in Little Albert
1. UCS (noise) = UCR (fear)
2. UCS (noise) + NS (rat) = UCR (fear)
3. CS (rat) = CR (fear)
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Positive reinforcement
- Encourages behaviour to be repeated, by using rewards
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Negative reinforcement
- Behaviour is repeated because it removes something unpleasant
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Skinner box
Skinner designed an experiment to **demonstrate** the **principles** of **operant conditioning** (either a rat or pigeon was placed in the box)
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How does the Skinner box demonstrate operant conditioning?
- The rat learns to press the lever to receive a food reward (positive reinforcement), and also to press the lever to avoid a shock (negative reinforcement).
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Schedules of reinforcement- Skinner
- Skinner experimented by using different ratio schedules e.g **1:5 a food pellet was dispensed every 5th lever press**
- He discovered that unpredictable reinforcement was more successful for conditioning behaviour than continuous reinforcement
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Strength of Behaviourism - Scientific Approach (1)
- Has a Scientific approach
- E.g Skinner was able to clearly demonstrate how **reinforcement** influenced an **animal's behaviour**
- This shows that behaviourist experiments have **scientific credibility** and **raises profile of psychology as a science**
58
Strength of Behaviourism - Real- World Application (2)
- Can be applied to real- world **problems** and **behaviours**
- E.g Treating phobias via systematic desensitisation and flooding
- Increases value of behaviourist approach because it has widespread application
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Weakness of Behaviourism - Reductionist (1)
- It is a reductionist
- E.g we can **learn phobias** which ignore the *influence of biology on behaviour*
- Learning is more complex than observable behaviour alone
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Weakness of Behaviourism - Can't be generalised (2)
- Can't be generalised
- E.g experiments done on animals can't extrapolate specifically from animals to humans
- Due to humans having high- order thinking + emotions
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Social Learning Theory
Individuals *observe* **role models** and the **consequences** of their actions. If the **consequences** are **positive** they **imitate** the behaviour
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Modelling
A **learning** process where **individuals** **acquire new behaviours** or **knowledge** by **observing** and **imitating** the **actions** of **others**
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Imitating
Copying the behaviour of others
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Identification
- When an **observer** associates themselves with a **role model** and wants to be **like** the **role model**
- Only going to **imitate role model** if we are **similar**, **like** + **admire** the role model- **raise** your **self- efficacy** (confidence)
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Vicarious reinforcement
- Reinforcement which is **not directly experienced** but occurs through **observing someone else** being **reinforced** for a **behaviour**
## Footnote
E.g A student who takes their time writing in nice penmanship because they observed other students being praised for their neat writing.
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Mediational processes
- Cognitive factors (i.e thinking) that **influence** **learning** and come **between** **stimulus** and **response**
1. Attention- extent to which we *notice* certain behaviours (noticeable)
2. Retention- how well the behaviour is *remembered*
3. Motor reproduction- ability of observer to *perform* the behaviour
4. Motivation- **will** to perform the behaviour, which is often determined by whether the behaviour was rewarded or punished
(These happen in between observation + imitation)
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Bandura study- Social Learning Theory is supported by Bandura
- Bandura showed **videos** to children where an adult behaved aggressively towards a Bobo Doll.
- 1st group of children saw the adult being **praised** for behaviour
- 2nd group saw adult being **punished** for their aggression
- 3rd group (control) saw **aggression without consequence**
When given own Bobo doll to play with:
- 1st group showed must more aggression
- Then 3rd group
- And then 2nd group
**All learnt aggression ONLY imitated aggression if they experienced a reward**
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Strength of Social Learning Theory - Real- World Application (1)
- Can be applied to real- world behaviours + problems
- E.g children learn from others and this explains how cultural norms are transmitted through societies
- Increases the value of the approach as it can explain real- world behaviour/ problem
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Strength of Social Learning Theory - Reciprocal determinism (2)
- Reciprocal determinism
- E.g of soft determinism
- Allows you to choose your role model- some allowance for free will
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Strength of Social Learning Theory - Scientific (3)
- Is scientific
- Bobo doll study was done in a controlled lab
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Weakness of Social Learning Theory - Lab Studies (1)
- Evidence was gathered in lab studies
- E.g in a lab, children were aggressive to the Bobo doll because they thought that behaviour was expected
- Research tells us little about how children actually **learn aggression** in **everyday life**- suggesting there is **low ecological validity**
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Weakness of Social Learning Theory - Not Scientific (2)
- SLT is not scientific
- E.g as we can not see the cognitive/ mediational processes
- Doesn't tell us about imitation and SLT in the real world
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Cognitive approach
Suggests that all behaviour is preceded by a **thought** and that **thought processes** can and should be studied scientifically
74
Computer models/ analogies
Have been criticised for machine reductionism, which means that they **reduce *complex* thought processes down to *simple* mechanical processes**
75
Strength of Computer analogies - working? (1)
- Can help us to identify when CPU isn't working
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Weakness of Computer analogies - machine reductionism (1)
- Machine reductionism
- Overly reductionist
- Brains are not computers
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Theoretical models
Models are **simplified representations** based on **current research evidence**. These models are often changed, updated and refined
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Strength of Theoretical models - scans... (1)
- Beginning to find **areas of brain** that **match** with **models**- now evidence- scans
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Weakness of Theoretical models - Unscientific (2)
- Unscientific- can't see models in the model
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Inferences
Cognitive psychologists have to **infer conclusions** about how **mental processes work** based on **observable behaviour**
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Strength of Inferences - Data... (1)
- Have data to back it up
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Weakness of Inferences - Unscientific (2)
- Unscientific- guesses- can't see working of minds
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Schema Theory
- States that **all knowledge** is **organised** into **units**
- Schema is a **generalised *description*** or a **conceptual system** for ***understanding* knowledge**- (how **knowledge** is **represented** and how it is **used**)
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Strength of Schema theory - Useful (1)
- Useful to us as they allow us to take **shortcuts** when **interpreting** the **huge amount** of **information** that we have to **deal** with on a **daily basis**
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Weakness of Schema theory - exclude info (2)
- Schemas cause us to **exclude** any **information** that does **not conform** to our **established ideas** about the **world** (can lead to **stereotyping**)
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Strength of Cognitive Approach - Scientific methods (1)
- Uses objective, scientific methods
- E.g cognitive psychologists employ highly controlled methods of study so researchers are able to **infer cognitive processes at work**
- Study of mind has a credible scientific basis
| E.G- USE LOFTUS + PALMER- VIDEO THEY WATCHED OF CRASH- CHANGED VERB
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Strength of Cognitive approach- Practical application (2)
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- Has practical/ real world application
- E.g has been applied to treatment of depression (CBT) + improved the reliability of eyewitness testimony
- Supports value of cognitive approach
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Weakness of Cognitive approach- Interactionist (1)
- Interactionist
- Thoughts are biological (mind as CPU) but are shaped by upbringing etc
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Weakness of Cognitive approach- machine reductionism (2)
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- Based on machine reductionism
- E.g machine reductionism **ignores** the **influence** of **human emotion** which may AFFECT our **ability** to **process information**
- Machine reductionism may **weaken** the **validity** of the cognitive approach
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Cognitive Neuroscience
- *We can now see what* **areas of the brain** are involved in **specific cognitive functions**
- *These techniques allow us* to **accurately map** the **function** of the **brain**
- Allows us to **study healthy brains**
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fMRI
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging- measures oxygenated blood
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Applications of cognitive neuroscience
- Analyse the **brain wave patterns** of **eyewitnesses** to determine whether they are **lying in court**
- Helps us to understand the **disfunction** if someone **damages** their brain- knows where the **problems will be**
- Find out **treatment for OCD**- what parts of the **brain** that are **affected**
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Strength of Cognitive Neuroscience- Real- world applications (1)
- Has real- world applications
- E.g Cognitive Neuroscience can be used in the **treatment of OCD** to find out what parts of the **brain** are **affected**
- Supports value of Cognitive Neuroscience
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Strength of Cognitive Neuroscience- Scientific (2)
- Uses scientific methods
- E.g the data collection is objective
- Increases it reliability
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Weakness of Cognitive Neuroscience- machine reductionism (1)
- Based on machine reductionism
- E.g humans are **complex** and ***unpredictable*** and cannot be **likened** to an **inanimate object**
- Machine reductionism may **weaken** the **validity** of cognitive neuroscience
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Weakness of Cognitive Neuroscience- reliability (2)
- Technologies used in cognitive neuroscience are not **100% reliabile**
- E.g MRI scans are **not** always **reliable** due to **user- error**- e.g in temperature
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Biological approach
- Focuses on biological explanations of human behaviour
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Genetic inheritance
- We have 50% of our mother's genes and 50% of our father's genes
- This may explain why we may share both **physical** and **psychological** characteristics with our parents
- MZ twins share 100% of each other's genes
- DZ twins only share 50% of each other's genes
- If MZ concordance rate is higher that DZ twins suggets its genetic and environment must have influence if MZ twins concordance rate are not 100%
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Genotype
- Genetic code written into the DNA of individual cells
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Phenotype
- Physical appearance of that in the individual
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Nervous system has 2 major systems:
- Central Nervous System- Brain and spinal cord
- Peripheral Nervous System- somatic and autonomic nervous systems
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Nervous system
- **Sends messages** from **one part** of our bodies to another using **nerve cell, known as neurons**.
- These **transmit impluses** in the form of **electrical signals**
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Strength of Biological Approach- Scientific methods (1)
- Uses scientific methods
- E.g to **investigate** the **biological and genetic basis of behaviour** (the biologcal approach uses highly objective methods)
- Most of the biological approach is based on objective and reliable data which raises profile of psychology as a science
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Strength of Biological Approach- Practical applications (2)
- Real- world application
- E.g the biological approach has promoted the treatment of clincial depression using anti- depressant drugs
- People with depression may be able to manage their condition
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Weakness of Biological Approach- Determinism (1)
- It is determinist
- E.g it sees human behaviour as governed by internal, genetic causes we have no control
- Biological view is too simplistic and ignores the effect of environment
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Weakness of Biological Approach- Issues with evolutionary theory (2)
- **Not possible** to **falsify theory of natural selection**
- E.g we **cannot show evolution happening**, can only **deduce** it has **taken place**
- Due to **fossil record**- evidence of evolution, **no fossil record** in **psychological evidence**- **lacks evidence, theory without evidence- unscientific**
