Peer review- RESEARCH METHODS

Question 1

Peer review process

Answer 1

• Happens BEFORE publication in a journal
• Researcher submits paper to journal
• If the paper meets the journal’s aims and scope it is sent to external reviewers
• The reviewer is a researcher deemed an exspert in the particular field that the paper is on
• The reviewers do not know who ahs written the paper and likewise the author does not know who the review is (double- blind)- maximises objectivity

Question 2

The reviewers read the draft carefully- and what do they comment on?

Answer 2

• Appropriateness of the method used (to test aim)
• Ethical issues
• Sources of bias
• Operationalisation and control of key variables
• Reliability, validity and interpretation of findings
• Appropriateness of conclusions (conclusions = valid)
• The reviewer decides whether or not the research is worthy of publication in the journal
• The reviewers have a crucial role as controllers of the quality of published research that enters the public domain
• They consider validity, significance and originality
• A weak research design is unlikely to be published (rejected)
• Poor reporting may mean that minor or major changes have to be made by the researcher

Question 3

Publication of the research findings

Answer 3

• The research is now in the public domain
• Other researchers can attempt to replicate the findings with different samples etc
• Other research based on the findings can further the field
• Applications/ interventions may be based on the findings
• Other researchers can write into the journal to comment on the article and the original author may respond

Question 4

Why is peer review important for the scientific process?

Answer 4

• Researchers cannot spot every mistake in their own work- can’t trust there will be error- free work
• Increases probability that errors will be detected
• Prevent the dissemination of irrelevant findings, unsupported claims, unacceptable interpretations, personal views and deliberate fraud

Question 5

Main feature of science- What is objectivity?

Answer 5

• Not biased by personal opinions or viewpoints
• Not affected by the explanations of the researcher
• Systematic collection of measurable data

Question 6

Example of where Objectivity has been used?

Answer 6

• Loftus and Palmer- when they changed verbs
  How did they achieve objectivity?:
• Random allocation to conditions
• Filler activiies- didn’t know what the critical question was- reduces demand characteristics- more objective
• Control of varables- I.V- change of verbs, D.V- estimates of speed in data- quantitative data- less likely to be subjective

Question 7

How is objectivity achieved?

Answer 7

• Experiments- control of variables, random allocation of participants, observations, inter- rater reliability, double- blind study- another researcher collects data
• In psychology the “gold standard” of maximising objectivity is through carrying out carefully controlled lab experiments

Question 8

Threats of objectivity?

Answer 8

• Researcher bias (e.g Mead- collected data to support her own theory
• Participant bias- social desirability bias- change answers
• Demand characteristics

Question 9

Why is objectivity important in psychology?

Answer 9

• Increases validity and replicability
• Can identify cause and effect

Question 10

Main feature of science- What does replicability refer to?

Answer 10

• Can another observer gain the same outcome?
• What factors increase replicability?

Question 11

Why is replicability important?

Answer 11

1. Guards against scientific fraud
2. Allows scientists to check whether the results were a one- off due to the particular way that the study was carried out
3. Can be used to assess reliability

Question 12

Why is replicability important in psychology?

Answer 12

• Make sure other people can get the same results

Question 13

How is replication achieved in psychology in
1. Experiments
2. Observations

Answer 13

1. Experiments:
   - Control- participant variables (random allocation), situational variables
   - Careful methodology- objective measurements
   - Write a detailed procedure- so that someone can carry out your study
2. Observations:
   - Behavioural categories
   - Time/ Event sampling
   - Training observers
   - Covert observation- minimises demand characteristics

Question 14

Replication is only possible if full and precise details of research are published. What should this include?

Answer 14

• Exactly what they did
• The number of participants, their key characteristics and how they were selected
• Where the study was carried out
• What raw data was collected and how they were analysed

Question 15

Main features of science- theory construction. What are scientific theories?

Answer 15

• Scientific theories are formulated in attempt to explain behaviour that has been repeatedly observed
• They must then be subject to rigorous testing to see whether the gathered evidence supports or challenges the theory
• Theories need to be tested to add to our body of scientific knowledge

Question 16

Why is theory construction important in psychology?

Answer 16

• Scientific progress is made when clear and explicitly formulated theories are developed and systematically tested
• If research evidence does not support an exisiting theory that it was designed to test, that theory must be modified or rejected
• Allows testable predictions to be formulated

Question 17

Steps for a Deductive Approach

Answer 17

• A social phenomenon is observed (observe something in the real world)
• A theory is developed to explain why it occured
• The theory is tested through research and the theory is either accepted, rejected, or revised

Come up with theory first - then collect data

Question 18

Steps for an Inductive Approach

Answer 18

• A social phenomenon is observed
• Data is collected on the possible reasons why it occurs and trends in the data are examined
• A theory is developed from the data to explain the social phenomenon

Start testing then theory comes at the end

Question 19

Features of science- hypothesis testing

Answer 19

• Hypothesis- is a precise, testable statement of the expected outcomes of a study
• Psychological theories are tested by generating testable hypotheses and investigating whether the evidence supports them

Question 20

What happens if the evidence does not support the theory?

Answer 20

• May need to be refined or abandoned
• Specific hypothesis test elements of the theory
• We persist with the theory that provides the best explanation of the available data
• (one- tailed hypotheses are appropriate if previous research suggests the direction of your results)
• Statistical testing allows the researcher to determine whether a particular result is due to chance variation of manipulation of the I.V

Question 21

Falsification

Answer 21

• Best way to prove a theory is correct is to see evidence of disproof
• E.g we see seek to disprove the null hypothesis in order to accept the alternative hypothesis

Question 22

Why is hypothesis testing in psychology important?

Answer 22

• Allows predictions based on theories to be tested
• When experimental data confirm predicitons (hypotheses), researchers can be more confident that the theory is valid
• Theories can be refined or rejected
• Confidence level of p < 0.01, likelihood of a type 1 error is reducted (accepting the alternative hypothesis when it is not true

Question 23

Features of science- What are empirical methods?

Answer 23

• Empirical methods are the use of observations and measurement
• Methods that rely on direct sensory experience- the careful observation and measurement of variables
• Only variables that are publicly observabale and can be agreed upon by others can be validated as knowledge
• All scientific knowledge must be based on evidence collected through direct observation, experience or measurement, rather than on intuition, personal opinions or beliefs

Question 24

Example of where empirical methods have been used?

Answer 24

• Lab experiments
• Observations
• Questionnaires
• Interviews

Question 25

Why is the use of empirical methods important in psychology?

Answer 25

- Allows for objectve research methods - Allows for theory testing - Advance in scientific knowledge - Allows for replication - Claims/ predicitions can be tested

Question 26

Paradigms

Answer 26

- What distinguished a science is a set of shared assumptions and agreed methods - Kuhn believed that psychology's lack of an accepted paradigm and conflicting approaches means it is yet to achieve the status of mornal science and is therefore a "pre-science"

Question 27

Paradigm shift

Answer 27

- Kuhn proposed that there are two main phases in science - One is called "normal" science where one theory remains dominant despite occasional challenges from disconfirming studies - Graudally the disconfirming evidence accumulates until the theory can no longer me maintained and then it is overthrown - This the second phase- a paradigm shift -> follow what's acceptable in society - Therefore scientific progress is related to social factors (e.g what people are saying, what society will accept)

Question 28

Paradigm shifts in psychology

Answer 28

- Freud- focus on unconscious - Shift to learning theory- collecting empirical data - Shift to cognitive approach- tries to model thoughts - Shift to biological approach- cognitive neuroscience- mapping onto the brain

Question 29

What are 3 ways to check if a distribution is normal?

Answer 29

1. Examine visually (see if most centred around the mean). 2. Calculate the measures of central tendency (calculate the mean, median and mode- see if they are similar) 3. Plot the frequency of the distribution

Question 30

Characteristics of a normal distribution

Answer 30

1. The left and right sides of the distribution are mirror images. 2. Bell-shaped curve: Most values cluster around the mean, tapering off equally on both sides. 3. Mean = Median = Mode: All three measures of central tendency are the same and located at the center. 4. The ends of the curve approach, but never touch, the horizontal axis.

Question 31

LEARN POSITIVE SKEW

Answer 31

- The tail is on the right, it's a positive skew - Mode is high - Median higher than mode - Mean is the highest - Mean susceptible to outliers

Question 32

LEARN NEGATIVE SKEW

Answer 32

- Mode is the highest - Median is the lowest - Mean is the lowest- pulled mean down

Question 33

Characteristics of a skewed distribution

Answer 33

1. The distribution is not evenly balanced on both sides. 2. Tail direction indicates skew: - Positively skewed: Tail extends to the right (higher values). - Negatively skewed: Tail extends to the left (lower values). 3. Mean ≠ Median ≠ Mode: The mean is pulled in the direction of the skew, while the mode remains at the peak. 4. Most values are concentrated on one end of the scale.

Question 34

Implications of psychological research for the economy

Answer 34

Psychological research supports the economy by reducing healthcare costs, boosting workplace productivity, and improving education outcomes.