Issues and Debates Flashcards
(53 cards)
1
Q
Gender bias
A
Results when one gender is treated less favourable than the other, often referred to as sexism and has consequences like:
- Scientifically misleading
- Upholding stereotypical
assumptions
- Validating sex discrimination
2
Q
Alpha bias + Example of Alpha Bias
A
- Exaggerating the differences between men and women
EXAMPLE - Aggression- Shackleford study- Supports the concept of male sexual jealousy as an evolutionary drive- justifies aggression to females
3
Q
Androcentrism + Example of Androcentrism
A
- Taking male thinking/ behaviour as normal, regarding female thinking/ behaviour as deviant, inferior, abnormal when it is different
EXAMPLE: - Freud’s psychosexual theory- focuses on male development and views female development as a deviation from the male norm.
(Male behaviour superior to female behaviour)
4
Q
Beta Bias + Example of Beta Bias
A
- Exaggerating the similarity between men and women
EXAMPLE: - Research on fight or flight response- Focused mainly on males (both animals and humans), assuming everyone reacts the same way to stress, which ignores that females often have a “tend and befriend” response.
5
Q
AO3 Institutional sexism in psychology
A
Institutional sexism in psychology:
- Positions of power taken by males
AO3:
- Men predominate at senior researcher level
- Bowlby- monotropic theory- females won’t earn money/ no jobs
- Women and men might respond differently to research situation (often use male stimuli) -> Asch’s line study- “maths” appeals more to males and + males more likely to conform
- Publishing bias towards positive results (that finds a difference between males and females-> are exaggerated. Problem- gender differences
6
Q
AO3- How can the effects of gender bias be minimised in psychological bias?
A
- Use male and female participants. Looking into supporting women- not labelling women (e.g post- natal depression)- rather than labelling + medicalising them = support them
- More female researchers in top positions
- Carry out study just on female psychology
7
Q
Cultural bias
A
- When your own culture influences how you understand and judge other cultures
8
Q
Ethnocentrism + Example of Ethnocentrism
A
- Belief that the ethnic group with which the individual identifies is superior to other groups. (Compare other cultures to your own-> your culture = superior
- Assumption other cultures are deviant/ abnormal
EXAMPLE: - Ainsworth Strange Situation- only reflected norms/ values in Western Culture -> cultural difference
- Problem- it is scientifically wrong- lead to discrimination
9
Q
Ethnocentrism can lead to imposed etics- What is imposed etics?
A
- Where a construct from one culture is applied inappropriately to another
- E.g strange situation- studied behaviour in America + assumed their ideal attachment type could be applied universally
10
Q
Cultural Relativism + Example of Culture Relativism
A
- View that behaviour cannot be judged properly unless it is viewed in the context of the culture from which it originates.
-
Understanding behaviours vary in different cultures
EXAMPLE: - Cultural differences in food preferences- some cultures prefer “sweeter” foods- shaped by culture
- Aggression- can change in different cultures
11
Q
AO3- What are the implications (of ethnocentrism + cultural relativism)?
A
- Assumption other cultures are deviant
- Black- Americans more likely to be diagnosed with schizophrenia- misunderstanding of cultural difference can have serious consequences
12
Q
AO3 Consequences of Cultural bias
A
- E.g the use of IQ testing by the US army (bias towards people in America) before WWI -> based on performance in test they would be assigned a role in the army
- European immigrants results were BELOW Americans (more likely to survive), and African- Americans had the LOWEST mental age (worst position in army- more likely to die)
- This data led to enduring stereotypes towards certain ethnic groups- lead to long- term prejudice- e.g of ethnocentrism- supporting discrimination
13
Q
AO3- Avoiding cultural bias
A
- Emic approach- assumes cultures will be DIFFERENT- looking for cultural differences
- Using a range of cultures
- America + UK have funding to carry out research but other cultures don’t- want indigenous researchers
14
Q
Free Will + Examples of Free will
A
- Suggests that we all have a choice and can control and choose our own behaviour.
- This approach is all about personal responsibility and plays a central role in humanistic psychology
EXAMPLE: - Choosing role model in SLT
- Jahoda’s idea of self- actualisation-> hierarchy of needs- choose how to be a better person once lower needs are fulfilled
15
Q
AO3- Strengths of free will
A
- Emphasises the importance of the individual and studying individual differences
- It fits society’s view of personal responsibility- intuitive appeal- (think we have free will)- fits with society’s expectations
- Allows us to take responsibility for our actions-> free will protects us against learned helplessnesss
16
Q
AO3- Weakness of free will
A
- Free will is subjective-> it’s an illusion- we are controlled by biology, conditioning, cultural restrictions
- It is impossible to scientifically test the concept of free will
17
Q
Determinism
A
- Concept that all human behaviour results from either internal (biology, cognitions) or external (economy, role model) causes that are not under our conscious control or free will
18
Q
Environmental determinism + Example of environmental determinism
A
- Idea that our behaviour is CAUSED by some sort of outside influence (e.g environment)
EXAMPLE: - Attached via classical conditioning- no choice who you become attached to- person who feeds you
19
Q
Biological determinism + Example of biological determinism
A
Our biological systems, such as genes, hormones govern our behaviour
EXAMPLE:
- Genetic explanation for aggression-More likely to be similar to birth parents than adopted parents
20
Q
Psychic determinism + Example of psychic determinism
A
- Freud believed childhood experiences and unconscious motivations and drives govern behaviour
EXAMPLE: - Electra complex- gender identify/identity with mother in hope of attracting father
21
Q
Hard determinism + Example of Hard determinism
A
- Sees free will as an illusion and believes that every event and action has a cause
EXAMPLE: - Evolutionary theory of aggression- men will be sexually jealous- lead to aggression- no choice
22
Q
Soft Determinism + Example of soft determinism
A
- Represents a middle ground, people do have a choice, but that choice ISN’T constrained by external factors
EXAMPLE: - CBT- therapy can change cognitions
23
Q
AO3- Strength of determinism
A
- Determinism is scientific and allows (us to see) cause and effect -> Testable- adds to credibility of psychology as a science
- It gives valid explanations for behaviour backed up by evidence
24
Q
AO3- Weakness of determinism
A
- Hard determinism suggests criminals cannot be held accountable for their actions- doesn’t fit in with society’s viewpoint
25
Scientific emphasis on causal explanations
- *Psychology **aims** to discover* the **causes** of **thoughts, feelings and behaviours**, by **controlling variables** in order to **try** and **determine cause and effect**, and to make **predictions**
- *In psychology, we use* **well controlled lab experiments**, where we **manipulate the IV** to see an **effect on the DV**- all **extraneous variables are controlled.**
How do we find cause and effect?:
- **Experimentation**- **controlling variables** to **identify cause and effect**
26
Weakness of causal explanations
Weakness:
- Humans- more complex and have free will
- Can't always identify cause and effect
27
Nature debate + Example of nature debate
- *View* that **all our behaviour** is **INHERITED** via **our genes**
- *Nature aspect* is **rooted** in **nativist theory** that **knowledge/abilities** are **INNATE**
- **Any behaviour** has **evolved** because of it's **survival value**
EXAMPLE:
- **MAOA-L gene**- has an **evolutionary benefit**- therefore can **inherit genes** for **aggression**
- Bowlby suggested that **attachment behaviours** are **displayed** because they **ensure** that **survival of an infant** and the **perpetuation of the parents' genes**. This **survival value** is **increased** because **attatchment** has **IMPLICATIONS** for **later relationships**.
28
AO3- Strengths of Nature debate
- **Objective measures** as **evidence**- can **identify cause and effect**-> *raises profile for psychology as a science*
- **Scientific**- can do **gene analysis/ concordance rate studies**
- **Ethical**- doesn't blame people for conditions- e.g- obesity- in your genes- people can feel better about themselves- lower self- efficacy
- **Applications**- weight- loss drugs, MAOA-L gene- eat food high in protein
29
AO3- Weakness of Nature debate
- **Reductionist**- **simplifies complex behaviour**- e.g ***thrifty gene***- **live** in a **freely fair environment** where **food is always available**
- **Deterministic**- **external locus of control**- e.g **can't change obesity if it's in our future**
30
Nurture debate + Example of Nurture debate
- *View* that **all behaviour** is **learned** and **influenced** by **external factors**- e.g environment
- Born as **black slates** on which experiences are written
EXAMPLE:
- **Behaviourist approach**- *Pavlov's dogs*- they learned to associate the **sound of a bell with food**, that's a **learned behaviour**, not something they were born knowing- which assumes that all **behaviour is learned through the environment**
- **SLT**- Bobo doll study- what we learn is through **observation and vicarious reinforcement**
31
AO3- Strengths of Nurture debate
- Change behaviour by changing the environment- e.g phobia- through the use of systematic desensitisation and flooding
- Testable- e.g Skinner boxes- scientific- adds to credibility of psychology as a science
- Encourages social change- e.g improving environmental conditions and education in poorer areas
32
AO3- Weakness of Nature debate
- Environmental reductionist- some phobias have a biological predisposition
33
AO3- Nature and Nurture debate cannot be separated
- Interactionist approach- both contribute to our behaviour. Diathesis (Gene)- stress (Environment) Gene triggered by environment
- Epigenetics- refers to material in each cell of your body that switches genes on or off
- E.g malnutrition in childhood may lead to a small body size, which is then passed on to offspring, idea genes can be switched on and off by the environment, passed on to future generations- impossible to separate nature and nurture debate
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- Studies in rats recently demonstrated that exposure to THC during adolescence can prime future offspring to display signs of predisposition to heroin addiction -> Switched on addiction gene- passed onto next generation of rats, more likely to be addicted to drugs
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- Life experiences shape biology, for example Maguire's study on London taxi drivers- hippocampus became enlarged- using spatial memory- the truth is that behaviour is the result of a complex interaction between both
34
Holism + Example of Holism
- Argues that a behaviour cannot be understood in terms of the components that make it up
- Psychologists study the whole person to gain an understanding of all the factors that might influence behaviour
EXAMPLE:
- Humanistic approach- only under a person if we consider a person as a whole
35
AO3- Strengths of Holism
- Looks at everything that may impact on behaviour
- Integrates different components of behaviour in order to understand the person as a whole- gets valid understanding of a person
- Better way of understanding and treating mental illness- e.g client- centred therapy-> focuses on person as a whole, rather than applying pre- existing knowledge
36
AO3- Weaknesses of Holism
- Over complicates behaviours which may have simpler explanations
- Does not lend itself to the scientific method and empirical testing- less scientific
- Almost impossible to study all the factors that influence complex behaviours- more susceptible to bias
37
Reductionism
- Takes a complex behaviour and reduces it to a simpler behaviour/ explanation
38
Biological reductionism + example
- All behaviour is reduced to simple biological functions
EXAMPLE:
- E.g if in an obesogenic environment + inherit obese gene- you will be obese
39
Environmental reductionism + example
- Behaviourism sees behaviour in terms of simple stimulus/response relationships
EXAMPLE:
- Learning theory of phobias- can't explain most common phobias- have an evolutionary advantage
40
AO3- Strengths of Reductionism
- Looks in detail at individual components which affect behaviour
- By breaking things down they can be tested scientifically + has scientific credibility- adds to credibility of psychology as a science
41
AO3- Weakness of Reductionism
- Can be over simplistic- less valid
- Does not take into account other factors- not looking at all explanations
- Difficult to understand- lacks understanding of why people act the way they're acting
42
AO1- What is Levels of explanation
- Levels of explanation are used to explain the reductionism- holism continuum in explanations given in psychology
- At the lowest level are the most reductionist explanations- neurochemical explanations for human behaviour e.g neurotransmitters -> serotonin helps with mood, dopamine with feeling good
- Next level up is biological structures such as the brain
- Followed by the mid levels- psychological explanations
- Socio-cultural explanations are the highest level and take a holistic approach
43
AO2- Levels of explanation with the example of Anorexia
**Socio- Cultural level:**
- Society- the media- promotes 'thin idea'
- Cultural- AN is more common in cultures exposed to Western media
**Psychological level:**
- Cognitive- cognitive distortions: 'I ate a chip I must be fat', irrational thoguhts- self- worth based on weight. Perfectionism
- SLT- role models- seeing big sister rewarded for dieeting- expect the same reward
- Family Systems Theory- enmeshed families
**Biological structures:**
- Lateral hypothalamus- ‘on switch’ not being activated
**Neuro-chemical:**
- Serotonin- 1D receptor
- Dopamine receptor system
44
AO3- Levels of explanation
**Socio-cultural:**
- The most holistic level- takes an idiographic approach
- Research methods- case studies, diaries etc- rich data but subjective
- Less scientific- difficult to test
**Psychological:**
- Treatments are more tailored to the individual e.g CBT identifies and challenges irrational thoughts
- Takes subjective viewpoints into account, taking a more idiographic approach
- More subjective- requires opinions and interpretation- brings in error
**Biological:**
- Can identify cause and effect- e.g. concordance rate studies. Animal studies etc. Brain scans
- Occam’s razor- objective
- Can make predictions/generalisations- nomothetic approach
- Credibility of psychology as a science
- Can create treatments such as medication
- Biologically reductionist- doesn’t take learning experiences/environment into account
45
Idiographic approach + Example of Idiographic approach
- Looks at how our behaviours are different to each other
- Focuses on individuals and explains behaviour of individual people, not interesting in generalisations
- Tends to use qualitative methods
EXAMPLE:
- Humanistic approach- unconditional positive regard- in- depth conversations with clients in therapy- rejects nomothetic approach- only understands individual
46
AO3 of Idiographic approach
STRENGTH:
- Can tailor treatments to individual cases- e.g client- centred therapy- focuses on reducing congruence
WEAKNESS:
- Can't be generalised to other people - only focuses on the individual differences- e.g Little Hans- was a unique case- Freud attempted to generalise, not trying to generalise and not attempting to make predictions about others, like humanistic approach
- Time- consuming- collects minimal data- dangers of attrition
- Subjective data- experimenter + participant bias
47
Nomothetic approach + Example of Nomothetic approach
- Looks at how our behaviours are similar to each other as human beings
- Gather large amounts of data + samples- then create theories and make predictions about how people will behave
EXAMPLE:
- Milgram used a nomothetic approach to create general conclusions about human behaviour: that situational factors are responsible for both obedience and conformity.
48
AO3 of Nomothetic approach
STRENGTH:
- Quantitative data- easier to analyse, draw conclusions from + identify patterns
- More objective- carry out lab experiments- more controlled- adds to credibility of psychology as a science
WEAKNESS:
- Low ecological validity- e.g Loftus + Palmer- reactions not same as if it was a real car crash
- Lack detail- use qualitative data- harder to analyse
49
Millon & Davis- taking a combined approach
- Suggest research should start with a nomothetic approach and once general "laws" have been established, research can then move to a more idiographic approach
50
Socially sensitive research
- Where the topic area and/or group studied can have implications for society/certain groups in society leading to prejudice and discrimination potentialy leading to a change in, or justification for, the way these groups are treated/ perceive
- Sometimes a group is disadvantaged by the research
51
What were the 4 groups outlined by Sieber and Stanley that may be affected by psychological research
1. Members of the social group being studied- such as racial or ethnic group
2. Friends and relatives of those taking part in the study- particularly in case studies, where individuals may become famous or infamous
3. The research team- researchers being intimidated because of the line of research they are in
4. The institution in which the research is conducted
EXAMPLE:
- E.g Zimbardo- didn't protect anonymity of participants, didn't protect them ot just of psychological harm but also didn't protect institution- reputation of Stanford Uni at risk
52
Advise of Sieber and Stanley
- Researchers should not avoid researching socially sensitive issues- results are important
- They need to take more care over consent, debriefing-> participants need to know the potential finds of the study
- They should make explicit the assumptions but protecting the groups involved
- They should make the limitations of their research explicity
- They could be careful how they communicate their findings with the media- ensuring they are republishing it the correct way
53
What has been done to improve socially sensitive research?
- Submit research proposals to ethics committees and abide by an recommendations
- Weight up costs and benefits when conducting any research
- Present findings in a value- free way
- Take steps to avoid prejudicial media representation
