Approaches in psychology Flashcards
(100 cards)
1
Q
What are the two types of conditioning in the behavioural approach?
A
Operant and classical.
2
Q
What happens in classical conditioning?
A
A neutral stimulus becomes associated with an unconditioned response, and over time it becomes a conditioned stimulus that has an affect over the conditioned response.
3
Q
What is an example of classical conditioning?
A
Pavlov’s experiment.
When the bell was rung (neutral stimulus), a treat was given to a dog, which made him produce saliva (unconditioned response). Then over time the bell was rung (became a conditioned stimulus) and the researchers didnt even need to give the dog a treat for him to salivate (now conditioned response).
4
Q
What are some applications of classical conditioning?
A
Applied to therapy; the development of treatments for the reduction of anxiety with phobias. It means that you can eliminate the conditioned response. Systematic desensitization. Found to be effective in treatment- positive economic and mental health implications
5
Q
What happens in operant conditioning?
A
Someone is either reinforced or punished for their actions. This can be either positive or negative.
6
Q
What is positive reinforcement?
A
When a behaviour results in a positive consequence that is pleasant, like a treat.
7
Q
What is negative reinforcement?
A
A behaviour that will remove something unpleasant, such as switching an alarm off in the morning.
8
Q
What is positive punishment?
A
Adding something unpleasant as a consequence.
9
Q
What is negative punishment?
A
Taking away something pleasant as a consequence.
10
Q
Whats an example of operant conditioning?
A
Skinner’s rat study: the rat moves around the cage and if it accidentally presses the lever, a bit of food falls into the cage- the rat starts pressing the lever to get more food(positive reinforcement).
In a second study, the rat starts getting shocks but when pressing the lever, the shocks stop, thus they are negatively reinforced.
11
Q
What are some problems with the behaviourist approach?
A
- relies too heavily on non human animals in research, can tell us little about human behaviour, biological differences e.g. humans have bigger and different brains
- ignores other explanations of behaviour such as emotional states, which approaches like the humanistic approach can explain, skinner argued against this because he said that internal states are scientifically untestable.
12
Q
What are some strengths of the behaviourist approach?
A
- useful applications; anxiety phobia therapy treatments means less money spent on ineffective treatment and limits possible future effects. Also led to token economy which is based on operant conditioning; this can be used to monitor behaviour in institutions like prisons or mental health institutions to promote good behaviour In SZ patients
- skinner relied on the experimental method a lot- he had controlled conditions so could find the cause and effect relationship between variables
13
Q
What did Wundt want to study?
A
The structure of the human mind and to break down behaviours such as perception into their elements- this led to the study of introspection.
14
Q
What is introspection?
A
The process by which a person gains knowledge about his or her own mental and emotional states as a result of the examination or observation of their conscious thoughts and feelings.
15
Q
What is empiricism?
A
The belief that all knowledge is derived from sensory experience. It is generally characterised by the use of the scientific method in psychology.
16
Q
What helped psychology emerge as a science?
A
It’s reliance on the scientific method and empiricism
17
Q
What are the 4 aspects of social learning theory?
A
Modelling, imitation, identification, vicarious reinforcement
18
Q
What is modelling?
A
When someone observes a model’s behaviour, which they learn the behaviour from.
19
Q
What is imitation?
A
The action of using someone or something as a model and trying to replicate and copy their behaviour.
20
Q
What is identification?
A
Its a form of influence where an individual adopts an attitude or behaviour because they want to be associated with a person or group.
21
Q
What is vicarious reinforcement?
A
Learning that is not a result of direct reinforcement, but has been learnt through observing others and their reinforcement from behaviour.
22
Q
What are mediational processes?
A
They refer to the internal mental processes that exist between environmental stimuli and the response made by an individual to those stimuli.
23
Q
What study supports social learning theory?
A
Bandura bobo doll study. Children either watched a video of aggressive or non aggressive adult models playing with the doll and then were recorded playing with the doll. The ones exposed to aggressive behaviour mimicked this with physically and verbally aggressive abuse.
24
Q
What is the concept of social learning theory?
A
That behave based on what we have learnt from observing others and imitating behaviours that are rewarded.
25
What are some applications of social learning theory in our understanding of crime?
It has been used to help our understanding of why people commit crime- differential association theory. Mediational processes are involved, such as modelling and identification. When people exposed to models who are rewarded (VR) or have positive outlooks on crime, they are likely to become criminals themselves. Led to interventions in high risk areas of gangs to avoid criminality (economic implications). Also James Bulger case- murderers carried out what they watched in chucky film.
26
How is social learning theory reductionist?
Because it disregards biological or cognitive influences on behavior. For example in gender, social learning theorists emphasize the importance of gender-specific modeling; however a child is exposed to so many different influences which all interact in different ways like biological predispositions or media portrayals.
27
What is one possible use of SLT that could have positive economic benefits?
Advertising
Advertisers can use mediational processes to encourage people to buy products. If they use well known role models- identification.
28
How is SLT determinist?
Because it assumes that everyone who observes people be socially rewarded for behaviour will carry out this behaviour. However, some people are more pre-disposed to social influence than others (people with an internal locus of control don't rely so much on others when decision making).
29
Briefly explain what the cognitive approach is?
This explains behaviour by considering mental and informational processing. Internal mental processes (like operations of the mind) should be studied scientifically, but will have to rely on inference.
30
What is schema?
A cognitive framework that helps to organise and interpret information in the brain, and make sense of new information. They act as a mental model.
31
How is the role of schema good?
It allows us to take shortcuts when interpreting the huge amount of information we take in on the daily and fill in gaps we may have.
32
How is the role of schema bad?
Because it causes us to exclude information that does not conform to our established ideas. This means that we may develop stereotypes or prejudice which are hard to get rid of.
33
What are theoretical models?
Often represented by pictures or diagrams; these display simplified mental processes based on current research evidence.
34
What is an example of a theoretical model?
The multi store memory model or the working memory model
35
What are computer models?
Using computer analogies as a representation of how sensory information is coded as it passes through our systems. For example, input to output. Used to represent how memory is stored.
36
What is cognitive neuroscience?
An area of psychology dedicated to studying neural bases of cognitive functions (like memory)
37
What are the neuroimaging techniques and what is their purpose?
Studying the brain helps us to understand the different brain structures involved during different tasks.
PET and fMRI scans show this.
38
What is an example of what neuroimaging techniques have found in crime?
Violent criminals have reduced activity in their pre-frontal cortex, which cognitive neuroscience found to be involved with controlling impulses.
39
How has the cognitive approach helped with interviewing techniques?
Because it helped cognitive psychologists come up with the cognitive interview. This is rooted within schema, as the techniques used reverse the pre-existing scheman that we have. This is an effective way of interviewing and research has shown it is a lot more effective than standard interviews. Shows the importance of cognitive psych and underlying schemas in every-day life.
40
What is a problem with the scientific roots of cognitive psychology?
Because internal mental processes have to be studied via inference, we often have to use very controlled lab studies for example Baddley's word list research. This lacks ecological validity as they are overly controlled, lacks mundane realism, and cannot be generalised to real life activities.
41
How has the cognitive approach helped our understanding of mental disorders?
The cognitive approach has helped us understand extremely complex disorders ranging from schizophrenia to depression and from this psychologists have been able to develop effective treatments like CBT from it. This has had great mental health impacts for the people that suffer from the disorder but also it has had great economic impacts as the NHS has been able to save money in the long term, in less effective treatments like drug treatments.
42
Give a brief overview of the biological approach
The biological approach views all psychological and behavioural aspects of humans as a result of biological processes like neurochemistry, genes and neural structures
43
What is heredity?
The passing of characterisitcs from one generation to the next via genes which is the reason offspring take after their parents' psychological characteristics
44
What are psychological characteristics determined by according to the biological approach?
Interaction of genes vs environment
| Known as nature nurture debate
45
What is a gene?
A part of the chromosome of an organism that carries information in the form of DNA
46
What is the genotype?
The genetic makeup of an individual. This is what is inherited from generation to generation
47
What is the phenotype?
This is the physical/observable characteristics of an individual; a consequence of the interaction of the genotype with the environment
48
Describe the role of genetics on human behavior?
Every individual has a unique combination of genetic instructions thus we all differ in terms of personality, intelligence, abilities and so on. However, all of these are a result of an interaction with our environment too
49
How would we determine the role/importance of genetic factors?
We could use twin studies
This is because monozygotic twins have identical genotypes, so any differences that can be observed must be a result of the phenotype/environment
For example, in attempting to understand how important genes are in SZ. Josephs twin study showed that there was a 40% concordance rate of MZ twins whereas only around 7% for DZ
50
What is the impact of neurons on our behaviour?
The nervous system carries messages around the body via individual nerve cells known as neurons, in the form of electrical signals. Many aspects of our behaviour like breathing, eating and sexual behaviour are controlled by neurons.
51
What percent of the total mass in the brain does the cerebrum make up?
85%
52
What is the outer surface of the cerebrum known as?
The cerebal cortex- this is responsible for many complex functions like language and thoughts
53
What is the cerebrum divided into?
Two hemispheres
| These hemispheres are further divided into 4 different parts
54
What are the 4 different lobes in the brain?
Frontal
Temporal
Parietal
Occipital
55
What is the frontal lobe associated with?
Functions such as speech, thought and learning
56
What is the temporal lobe associated with?
Hearing and memory
57
What is the parietal lobe associated with?
Processing sensory information like touch, temperature and pain
58
What is the occipital lobe associated with?
Processing visual information
59
How do we know the importance of brain structures on our behavior?
For example, the case study of Phineas Gage; he suffered catastrophic damage to his prefrontal cortex which is in the frontal lobe. From this, there was extreme changes in his personality as he went from a calm and quiet individual to a angry drunk.
60
What is the impact of neurotransmitters on human behaviour?
Neurotrannsmiters are essentially chemical messengers that either trigger neurons to fire and stimulate the brain (excitatory) or inhibit nerve impulses in order to calm the brain/balance mood (inhibitory). They are involved with our mood, patterns like sleep and even mental disorders.
61
What is dopamine?
An excitatory NT which is associated with our drive/motivation
62
What is seratonin?
An inhibitory NT, in which stable amounts are nesseccary to maintain a stable mood
63
What is a study which shows the role of seratonin?
It was found that when seratonin levels are low then people tend to display increased aggression
Depression can be treated with SSRIs which act on stabilising seratonin levels as low levels of this NT are implicated in depression
64
Who proposed the theory of natural selection?
Charles Darwin
65
What is natural selection?
The process of how there are inherited characteristics that enhance an individuals reproductive success (or fitness) that are passed on to the next generation so they become more widespread over time
66
What is evolutionary psychology?
An approach which explains mental and psychological traits, like memory, as a result of adaptations which increase our chances of survival (it happens via natural selection). An example of this is in attachment; Bowlby's theory says infants have an innate evolutionary drive to attach so they can survive
67
How is the biological approach reductionist?
It believes that complex behaviour can be simplified to the action of genes, neurochemicals and hormones. Complex mental disorders like schizophrenia are explained with biological reductionism as it is believed that neurochemical imbalances/genes are the main causes whereas we know that there is a diathesis stress model needed for pretty much all of them as the environment and other processes like cognitive processes play a big role. Thus, although the biological approach is scientific and has led to good drug treatments, we cannot rely on it as there are other important factors.
68
How does the biological approach rely on the scientific method?
Specifically, the experimental method is used as a way of finding a causal relationship. Studies take place in highly controlled environments so that other research studies can replicate. It uses imaging and recording techniques like brain scans which increase the objectivity of the approach, and therefore increases the validity.
69
How is the biological approach determinist?
It is strongly determinist as it views our behaviour as fully caused by biological factors over which we have no control. This can be slightly dangerous; e.g. research shows there is a genetic basis of criminality and it has been proposed that society could genetically screen the population to identify this abnormality, so there will be discrimination against these people. However, criminality is a lot more likely to be a result of many aspects and potentially a diathesis-stress model so this genetic predisposition can be harmful in the wider picture.
70
Briefly explain what Freud believed about human behaviour?
That it was dtermined more by psychological factors rather than biological factors or environmental reinforcement. He assumed that people are born with basic instincts/needs and that behaviour is partly controlled by the unconscious mind
71
What is the role of the unconscious in Freud's theory?
It was believed that there is a part of the mind that is inaccessible to conscious thought, and that most of our everyday actions (waking and sleeping) are partly controlled by the unconscious mind. The unconscious mind sometimes reveals itself in slips of the tongue or reflexes. Iceberg represents this
72
What are freudian slips?
Slips of the tongue from our unconscious mind, e.g. what you say in the moment of an argument
73
What is the iceberg theory?
A metaphor to describe the mind
The tip of the iceberg is visible which is the conscious mind, but the much larger part is underwater and therefore hidden and is the unconscious
74
Into what 3 parts is personality structured into?
The ID, the ego, the superego
75
What is the ID?
This acts according to pleasure. It operates within our unconscious mind. It contains the libido, which is the biological energy created by reproductive instincts. We can see this in sexual desires or aggression
76
What is the ego?
This mediates between the impulsive demands of the id and the reality of the external world/moralistic demands of the superego.
77
What is the superego?
This is formed by the conscience and the ego-ideal. Our conscience is the internalisation of societal norms and causes feelings of guilt when these rules are broken. The ego-ideal is what a person strives towards and is likely determined by the examples parents set of good behaviour
78
What are defence mechanisms?
Unconscious strategies that protect our conscious mind from anxiety by distorting reality, so we are able to cope with negative situations better
79
What are the three defence mechanisms?
Repression, denial and displacement
80
What is repression?
This is when the unconscious mind blocks unacceptable thoughts and impulses. However, they continue to influence behaviour without the individual being aware of the reasons behind their behaviour. An example of this is a child who is abused growing up struggles to form relationships, but they have no recollection of the abuse because it has been repressed
81
What is denial?
This is refusing to accept reallity so you can avoid any painful feelings that are associated with that event- they act like the traumatic event never happened. E.g. an alcoholic may deny they have a drinking problem despite being arrested multiple times
82
What is displacement?
This involves redirecting hostile or frustrated thoughts/feelings in situations where the person feels unable to express them in the presence of the person that they should be directed towards. They may take it out on helpless victims or objects. This expresses their emotions even though they are misdirected.
83
What is the idea of Freud's psychosexual stages?
He believed that personality developed through a sequence of five stages. He thought that the most important driving force in development is libido ( the need to express sexual energy)
84
What are the order of stages in the psychosexual stages?
```
Oral
Anal
Phallic
Latent
Genital
```
85
How is there gender bias in the psychodynamic approach?
Because Freud focused more on male experiences of sexuality. Despite the fact that his theories were focused on sexual development, he completely ignored the differences between male and female sexuality: this was harmful because he treated female patients with an approach clearly biased towards men. We see this in the psychodynamic approach of explaining gender development- Jung later added the electra complex as Freud ignored the female experience.
86
How are there good applications of the psychodynamic approach?
Freudian therapy/psychoanalysis therapy can be used to treat mental disorders like anxiety and depression. It focuses on unconscious activities like getting the patient to talk about their childhood memories and their dreams so that the therapist can get to the real root of the problems
87
How is the psychodynamic approach determinist?
An issue with this approach is that it suffers from psychic determinism. It focuses on the idea that childhood trauma, experiences and events determine behaviour in later life which does not account for the free will that humans perceive themselves to have. This may make people feel as though their lives are slightly out of their control which is not empowering, and someone suffering from depression, for example, may feel there is no point in trying to recover as they are 'determined' to be this way due to their childhood
88
What is a brief summary of the humanistic approach?
It focuses on conscious experience, personal experience and free will.
89
What is free will in humanistic psychology?
The humanistic approach emphasises that people have full conscious control over their own destiny and have free will. It believes that we are able to make significant personal choices, within the constraints of other forces like biological and societal influences.
90
What was Maslow's theory?
He was interested in finding out how people could improve themself via personal growth and fulfillment
- his heirachy of needs
- self actualisation
91
What was Maslow's heirachy of needs?
```
Self-actualisation
Esteem
Love/belonging
Safety
Physiological
Represented by a triangle. The most basic physiological needs are at the bottom whereas the advanced needs are at the top. Each level must be fulfilled in order to move up to a higher need.
```
92
What is self-actualisation?
This is the highest level of the hierarchy. It consists of being creative, accepting of other people and having an accurate perception of the world around them. It is a feeling of inspiration and estascy, with no fears and doubts.
93
What is focus on the self in the humanistic approach?
This refers to how we percieve ourself as a person. The higher the self image, the greater our psychological health will be.
Roger claimed there was two basic needs for this:
- positive regard from others
- feelings of self worth
94
What is thought to determine our self worth?
- childhood: interactions with parents form it
| - further interactions with significant others like friends and spouses can influence it
95
What is congruence?
A state of congruence is when there is similarity between the person's ideal self and their current self image. A lack of congruence is when the difference between these two is big.
96
What are our conditions of worth determined by?
Conditional positive regard
97
What is the difference between unconditional and conditional positive regard?
When love and acceptance given by others is unconditional, the person feels accepted for who they are or what they do.
When it is conditional, they only feel accepted if they do what others want them to do. Thus, if they receive conditional positive regard, this can determine conditions of worth.
98
What influence has the humanistic approach had on counselling psychology?
As psychological problems were thought to be a result of their conditions of worth and the conditional positive regard they receive from others, therapists provide unconditional positive regard and empathy in order for people to reach their full potential/self-actualisation. This has had great mental health benefits for many patients and this displays the importance of this approach in helping people in their every-day life.
99
Why is the humanisitic approach criticised for not being scientific?
Because the research of humanisim does not establish a causal relationship between variables. Rogers in particular rejected experimental research methods as he believed that using this in relation to verify the results of counselling was impossible. It also used a lot of subjective, qualitative data and this means it is hard to replicate and is more subject to bias. This is a limitation of the theory, and other theories like the cognitive theory have a lot of solid, objective and scientific evidence and research to back it up.
100
How is the humanistic approach unrealistic?
It presents an idealised and unrealistic view of human nature. It doesn't take into account that some people ae not as 'growth orientated' as others and that a lot of people are naturally more pessimistic than others but people like this can still be psychologically healthy. Therefore, in modern day society, it may be more appropriate for people to focus on situational forces like dealing with stress and emotions in order to be psychologically healthy instead of self-development.
