Psychopathology Flashcards

Question

What are the cognitive characteristics of phobias?

Answer 1

- the irrational nature of the persons thinking and the resistance to rational arguments (e.g. someone with a phobia of sharks will not listen to someone who says they're harmless) - the person can recognise that their fear is excessive or unreasonable (although this may be absent in children)

Answer 2

- sadness/emptiness/hopelessness - a loss of interest and pleasure - sometimes anger (to others or to self)

Answer 3

``` Reduce or increase in - activity levels (some feel agitated and restless) - sleep - appetite also self harm in some people ```

Answer 4

- irrational and negative thoughts | - self beliefs that are self-fufilling (e.g. if you believe you will fail a test you will not put work in)

Answer 5

- anxiety and distress | - awareness this is excessive, leading to shame/embarassment

Answer 6

COMPULSIONS These are repetitive acions performed to reduce obsessive thoughts and anxiety. These are not connected in a realistic way and are clearly excessive.

Answer 7

OBSESSIONS Recurrent, intrusive thoughts or impulses that are perceived as inappropriate or forbidden. They may be frightening or embarrassing so the person doesn't want to share them. These are uncontrollable thoughts that are recognised to be a product of the persons mind but produce extreme anxiety.

Answer 8

These are repetitive acions performed to reduce obsessive thoughts and anxiety. These are not connected in a realistic way and are clearly excessive.

Answer 9

Recurrent, intrusive thoughts or impulses that are perceived as inappropriate or forbidden. They may be frightening or embarrassing so the person doesn't want to share them. These are uncontrollable thoughts that are recognised to be a product of the persons mind but produce extreme anxiety.

Answer 10

Classical conditioning

Answer 11

Operant conditioning

Answer 12

Because it is acquired through association of a NS +UCS and a conditioned fear response

Answer 13

before the experience, the dog (NS) --> no response being bitten by a dog --> fear response UCS--> UCR dog by itself --> fear response CS--> CR

Answer 14

White rat NS had no response NR Loud noise UCS created fear response UCR Loud noise + white rat UCS+NS created fear response UCR white rat CS created CR

Answer 15

That emotional responses could be learned through classical conditioning

Answer 16

Before the study was conducted he showed no response to white fluffy things (e.g. white rat, white rabbit, white cotton wool) After he had a conditioned response of fear and crying to all white fluffy objects

Answer 17

Because this maintains phobias Phobias are reinforced. Avoidance of the phobic stimulus leads to reduced fear, and this is negative reinforcement because anxiety is taken away

Answer 18

Because phobias could be acquired through the modelling of others- if a child sees their role model parent respond to a stimulus with extreme stress then the child may imitate the behaviour if they see the response as rewarding or if it gets attention from others

Answer 19

It concludes that if a NS is associated with a fearful experience then the result will be a phobia but this is not always the case. Not everyone who gets bitten by a dog gets a phobia of dogs so there is a limited and determinist explanation. A diathesis stress model may give a more holistic explanation; its been proposed that we have a genetic vulnerability of developing mental disorders so the fearful experience may just be a trigger for developing a phobia

Answer 20

it was argued that humans have a biological preparedness to develop certain phobias than others, which could also give a more holistic explanation. We may be genetically programmed to learn association between life threatening stimuli and fear (although they're more relevant to our evolutionary past like snakes or sharks as this adaptive and would've helped us to survive). People can have phobias of things they've never encountered before.

Answer 21

Because it doesn't take mental processes into account. It argues that the thinking process that occurs between a stimulus and response, such as irrational thinking which has significance in OCD and depression. Thus, CBT may be a good treatment or could be used in combination with systematic desensitization/flooding.

Answer 22

Because they both involve counterconditioning which is a form of classical conditioning

Answer 23

- Firstly, the patient is taught about relaxation techniques, such as focusing on breathing or relaxing their muscles - A desensitization hierarchy is created by the therapist and patient. This is a series of imagined scenes which all cause a little more anxiety than the last one - Patient gradually works their way through the DH whilst doing the relaxation at each stage - Once the patient has mastered each step in the hierarchy, then they are ready to move on to the next - The patient finally masters the most feared situation

Answer 24

The patient is classically conditioned to associate the phobic stimulus with a new response (relaxation instead of fear). This desensitizes their anxiety and relaxation inhibits the anxiety.

Answer 25

This a series of imagined scenes which all cause more anxiety as they progress. It happens one step at a time so it is not overwhelming.

Answer 26

In one long session, the patient is fully exposed to their phobia at its worst. The session continues until the patient's anxiety has disappeared. It can be done in real life or in virtual reality. The patient is also taught how to relax their muscles before.

Answer 27

A person's fear response/release of adrenaline has a time limit. Adrenaline levels will naturally decrease so a new stimulus-response link can be learned- a non anxious response.

Answer 28

- in vivo- patient is exposed to phobic stimulus | - in vitro- patient imagines the phobic stimulus

Answer 29

In in-vitro the patient is told to imagine the stimulus. This ignores individual differences between patients as some patients will be able to visualise better than others, thus limiting the effectiveness. Cost benefit analysis means it will be more effective in the long term if the patient is physically exposed to the stimulus thus we should invest in in-vivo. Also, the process is very slow but the longer the sessions are the more effective it is.

Answer 30

It is rarely used because it dangerous and has ethical issues, as the participant is NOT protected from harm. It is not appropriate for treating all phobias because in some cases it actually increases the fear response after the therapy. Also, during the therapy, the patient has a right to withdraw but if they withdraw before they have reached a relaxed stage then the anxiety will never be eliminated. These all limit the effectiveness of the therapy.

Answer 31

They are generally faster, cheaper and require less effort on the patients part than other psychotherapies. As the therapy does not require the patient to think deeply about their problems, unlike CBT, then this is very useful for people who do not have an insight into their motivations, so e.g. children or people with learning disabilities.

Answer 32

Activating event- e.g. you get fired at work

Answer 33

Belief- this either rational or irrational | e.g. 'the company was overstaffed' vs 'they've always had it in for me'

Answer 34

Consequence Rational beliefs lead to healthy emotions Irrational beliefs lead to unhealthy emotions, like depression

Answer 35

Thinking that certain ideas or assumptions must be true in order for an individual to be happy. E.g., i must pass this test or I will fail in life If an individual has mustabatory thinking then they will probably be disappointed or at worst, depressed. This is because it is irrational.

Answer 36

- i must be approved or accepted by people I find important - I must do well or I am worthless - the world must give me happiness or I will die

Answer 37

That depressed individuals feel the way they do because their thinking is biased towards negative interpretations of the world, and they lack a perceived sense of control.

Answer 38

Depressed people are thought to have acquired a negative schema during their childhood, which gives them a negative view of the world. It could be caused by criticism or rejection from parents, peers or teachers. They lead to cognitive biases in thinking.

Answer 39

Cognitive biases in thinking. An example of this would be that if someone received a small piece of negative feedback then they would create a sweeping negative perception of themselves because of it

Answer 40

Negative view of the self Negative view of the future Negative view of the world

Answer 41

It has great applications within therapy where it is usefully applied and utilised. Both of the theories have led to successful treatments within CBT. This is consistently found to be the best treatment of depression. It has a high effectiveness rate of around 80% but when used in addition with drugs, it is even higher. However, this shows that there must be some biological aspect to depression if drugs help treat it, so it is possible to argue that the cognitive approach by itself is reductionist.

Answer 42

Because it suggests that the client is responsible for their disorder, not any situational factors. However, this is actually a good thing because it gives the client the power to change the way that things are, as it is NOT out of their hands. This promotes recovery and room for improvement. This slightly ignores factors such as life events or family life that may have influenced the person's mental disorder, so you may argue that this is a further reason why it is reductionist.

Answer 43

Because the biological approach suggests that genes and neurotransmitters may cause depression. Specifically, there are very low levels of serotonin in depressed patients; a gene related to this was 10 times more common in people with depression. Also, the effects of drug therapies which increase seratonin levels are beneficial in helping treat depression. This implies the need for a diathesis-stress model which is more holistic and therefore a more valid explanation.

Answer 44

The idea that the way we feel is partly based on the way we think about events so if we treat these irrational thoughts then we can develop new coping strategies to replace previous behaviour and ways of thinking. - challenging irrational thoughts - homework - behavioural activation - unconditional positive regard

Answer 45

To challenge and replace irrational thoughts with rational ones

Answer 46

He extended it to ABCDEF D- disputing irrational thoughts and beliefs E- effects of disputing and effective attitudes to life F- (new) feelings (or emotions) that are produced

Answer 47

REBT- rational emotional behaviour therapy

Answer 48

- logical: 'does thinking in this way make sense?' - empirical: 'where is the proof that this belief is accurate?' - pragmatic: 'how is this belief likely to help me?'

Answer 49

Thinking the worst of something- an irrational thought which is much worse than reality. Links to ABC model or negative schema in negative triad

Answer 50

When negative thoughts repeatedly go round your head

Answer 51

Clients are often asked to complete assignments between sessions, such as looking for a new job. This replaces the irrational beliefs and puts the new rational beliefs into practice.

Answer 52

Encouraging depressed patients to become more active and engage in pleasurable activities (especially ones they used to enjoy before their depression). This is because being active will lead to rewards/pleasure.

Answer 53

The therapist provides respect and appreciation regardless of what the client does/says, this will encourage a change in behaviour and attitudes because they will feel better about themself and less worthless.

Answer 54

Because Ellis claimed that with 27 sessions of therapy, there was around a 90% success rate which is very impressive and thus implies great mental health benefits for the patient. Ellis recognised that it was not always effective because some clients did not put their new rational beliefs into action, as behavioural action is a key factor in treatment. In the long term this may have good economic implications because the NHS will have to invest less in repeated less effective treatments like drug therapies.

Answer 55

Because some people may be more suitable than others- people who have high levels of irrational beliefs that are rigid and resistant to change struggle to benefit from CBT. There is also a lot of effort required from the patient and in some cases of severe depression, CBT may have no effect or even a bad effect as they have to get involved with the cognitive effort associated with recovery. Limitation- individual differences affects the effectiveness.

Answer 56

As there is research support that depression is influenced by biological factors, such as low levels of seratonin, it is reductionist to treat depression just in terms of cognitive aspects. If we use therapy alongside drug treatments, there is a very high efficacy rate of above 80%, where drug treatments alone only have a success rate of just over 50%. This shows that there is an interaction and possibly a diathesis-stress so we should consider more factors rather than just faulty thinking.

Answer 57

- the comt gene - the sert gene - diathesis-stress

Answer 58

That they are inherited- specific genes are related to specific disorders

Answer 59

It is involved with the production of COMT. COMT regulates the production of the neurotransmitter dopamine. In OCD patients, one form of the COMT gene has been found to be more common; lower COMT activity and high levels of dopamine.

Answer 60

Regulates the production of dopamine

Answer 61

It affects the transport of serotonin thus creating lower levels of the NT. Low levels of serotonin are associated with OCD.

Answer 62

It is unlikely that the disorder is solely caused by biological factors, because the disorder is so complex. Genes such as the SERT gene are also involved in other disorders like depression. Thus, perhaps the individual gene creates a vulnerability for disorders, but the stress/external factor causes the disorder to develop. People may have the genes but not the disorder.

Answer 63

They are abnormally high

Answer 64

In animal studies, high doses of drugs that enhance levels of dopamine induce stereotypical movements seen in compulsions in ocd

Answer 65

Lower levels are associated with OCD

Answer 66

Anti-depressants that increase serotonin activity have been shown to reduce OCD symptoms

Answer 67

The caudate nucleus normally supresses signals from the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC). In turn the OFC sends signals to the thalamus about 'worries', like e.g. germs. However, when the caudate nucleus is damaged it cannot suppress minor worries so the thalamus is alerted, which then sends signals to the OFC, making it a worry circuit.

Answer 68

PET scans of OCD patients demonstrated that there is heightened activity in the OFC when their symptoms are active (so a person with a germ obsession may have been holding a dirty cloth)

Answer 69

Because serotonin plays a key role in the functioning of the OFC and caudate nucleus, its possible that as serotonin levels are low that this is the reason they malfunction

Answer 70

Dopamine is the main neurotransmitter of the basal ganglia, so high levels of dopamine lead to overactivity of this region

Answer 71

2% compared to 10%

Answer 72

Almost 90%

Answer 73

Family studies- 2% of general population compared to 10% when an individual has a OCD parent Twin studies- for MZ is around 85%, for DZ twins its around half of that Concordance rates are not 100% so diathesis stress model may be needed?

Answer 74

- gene therapy, which means its possible to switching genes off so that the disorder is not expressed in the fetus. Ethical and moral issues and is also reductionist as it implies genes are the only cause - drug treatments- SSRIs that contain high serotonin levels can reduce symptoms

Answer 75

Only considers bio elements The two process model can be applied here - neutral stimulus like dirt associated with anxiety via classical conditioning - compulsions like cleaning the house to get rid of dirt gets rid of anxiety produced- operant conditioning, negative reinforcement - this has led to treatment mirroring systematic desensitisation

Answer 76

SSRI antidepressants Tricyclics antidepressants Benzos anti-anxiety

Answer 77

As low levels of serotonin are associated with OCD, especially with creating a faulty worry circuit, the drugs work to increase serotonin levels

Answer 78

- Serotonin is released into a synapse from the pre-synaptic neuron - It targets receptor cells on the receptor sites at the receiving neuron - It is reabsorbed by the initial neuron sending the message - Therefore to increase serotonin levels at the synapse and increase stimulation to the receiving neuron, it inhibits the re-uptake

Answer 79

They target serotonin and noradrenaline

Answer 80

They block the transporter mechanism that re-absorbs both serotonin and noradrenaline in the pre-synaptic cell, after it has fired. Because they are not re-absorbed, the NT are left in the synapse and their activity is pro-longed

Answer 81

They react with special sites called GABA receptors on receiving neurons. When GABA locks into these receptors, it increases the flow of chloride ions into the neuron and these make it harder for the neuron to be stimulated by other NTs, therefore the person feels more relaxed.

Answer 82

Xanax and valium

Answer 83

To reduce anxiety- effectively shuts off/calms down the nervous system

Answer 84

There is evidence that supports the efficacy of these drugs; in controlled studies, compared with placebos, OCD patients who were taking SSRIs improved significantly and their symptoms were reduced, compared to the people on the placebo. However, these experiments are short term and do not demonstrate how effective they may be after a few months. They are also not really a long-lasting treatment and may result in future relapse as they do not address the root of the problem

Answer 85

Mainly because it doesn't require a lot of effort from the individual, which can be hard when they are suffering so much. CBT requires regular meetings and considerable thought into the root of the problem. Drug therapies are also cheaper and do not require as much monitoring. Thus in the short term drug therapies have good economic benefits for the NHS but in the long term, relapse is possible so if we invest in CBT it may be better economically in the long term.

Answer 86

All 3 drugs have side effects. SSRIs can cause headaches or insomnia. These aren't as severe as tricyclics or benzos. Tricyclics can cause nasty side effects like hallucinations and irregular heartbeat which is very unpleasant for the patient. Benzos can cause long term memory problems or aggression, and are actually quite addictive. BZs tend to be used as a last resort. These side effects all limit the usefulness of these drugs.

Psychopathology Flashcards

(115 cards)