Forensics Flashcards
(100 cards)
1
Q
What is the top down approach?
A
When profilers have pre-existing conceptual categories of offenders in their minds.
2
Q
How does the top down approach work?
A
- There are pre-existing categories of organised and disorganised offenders
- Analysis of the crime, and the data is put into patterns.
- Categorisation of offender as organised/disorganised (crime assessment) and creation of hypothesis of the probable characteristics of the offender
3
Q
What are the steps of top-down profiling?
A
- profiling inputs (description of the crime scene, info about victim, details of crime)
- decision process models (puts the data into patterns, e.g. location +time factors, type of murder)
- crime assessment (organised vs disorganised offender)
- criminal profile (hypothesis about the background of criminal, how the criminal may respond to investigative efforts)
- crime assessment (report is given to the investigators and people matching this are evaluated. If no suspect is identified then goes back to step 2)
- apprehension (effectively an evaluation to make sure everything was valid)
4
Q
What significant thing did top-down profilers do?
A
Drew upon data gathered from in depth interviews with 36 sexually motivated serial killers e.g. ted bundy, Richard Ramirez
5
Q
Give a brief overview of the bottom-up approach to profiling
A
The UK method involves using the objective evidence to predict things about the criminal (s), rather than using subjective methods like the FBI. It was developed by Canter who caught the ‘railway rapist’; his model is known as the five factor model.
6
Q
What is Canter’s bottom up profiling method called?
A
The five factor model
7
Q
What are the 5 steps of Canter’s five factor model?
A
Interpersonal coherence Time and place Criminal characteristics Criminal career Forensic awareness
8
Q
What is interpersonal coherence? (bottom up)
A
Consistency between the way offenders interact with their victims and others in every day life
9
Q
What is time and place? (bottom up)
A
The time and location of an offender’s crime will communicate something about their own place of residence/employment
10
Q
What are criminal characteristics? (bottom up)
A
Characteristics about the offenders can help to classify them which helps investigations
11
Q
What is criminal career? (bottom up)
A
Crimes tend to be committed in similar fashion by offenders and can provide indication of how their criminal activity will develop
12
Q
What is forensic awareness? (bottom up)
A
Offenders who show an understanding of a police investigation are likely to have had previous encounters with the criminal justice system
13
Q
What is the difference between a marauder criminal and a commuter criminal?
A
Marauder does local crime, commuter travels to commit their crime
14
Q
What is the ativistic form theory?
A
An early biological explanation which proposed that criminals are a subspecies of genetic throwbacks that can conform to the rules of modern society. Such individuals are distinguishable by particular facial and cranial characteristics
15
Q
What 2 criminologists are important when we consider the atavistic form?
A
Franz Gall proposed phreonology (the shape of your head corresponds to personality)
Cesare Lombroso- criminals are genetic throwbacks with atavistic features
16
Q
What characteristics are criminals supposed to have?
A
Strong, prominent jaws
High cheekbones
Dark skin
Extra toes/nipples/figures
17
Q
What characteristics are sexual deviants supposed to have?
A
Glinting eyes
Swollen, fleshy lips
18
Q
What did Cesare Lombroso study and what were his findings?
A
He did a study of facial and cranial features of almost 4000 living and dead criminals in Italy which supported his theory. However, a lot of Africans were in Italian prisons because they migrated there and their characteristics fitted his e.g. dark skin
19
Q
What was the idea of eugenics?
A
That genetically ‘unfit’ people should be prevented from breeding
20
Q
What is an organised offender?
A
Planned and targeted victim, violent fantasies may be acted out. The offender is usually intelligent, and socially and sexually competent.
21
Q
What is a disorganised offender?
A
Unplanned and random selection of the victim. The offender usually leaves evidence at the crime scene like blood, semen, fingerprints or the weapon.
22
Q
What is geographical profiling?
A
Analyses locations and connections between crime scenes
23
Q
What is circle theory?
A
Cantern proposed that most offenders have a spatial mindset, committing crimes within an imaginary circle. This explains marauders.
24
Q
What is criminal geographic targeting?
A
A computerised system developed that has a formula which uses data about time, distance and movement and produces a map called a ‘jeopardy surface’ which shows likely closeness to the residence of the offender
25
What were the three types of criminals according to Lombroso?
- Born criminals, who were the atavistic type
- Insane criminals, who are mentally ill
- Criminaloids, offenders whose mental characteristics predisposed them to criminal behaviour under the right circumstances
26
How does brain damage correlate to personality change within crime?
Brain damage can be related to offending behaviour.
- 60% of US prisoners have a brain injury, in comparison with around 8% of the general population
- Phineas Gage had catastrophic damage to his prefrontal cortex and recovered physically, but his personality changed from a family man to a violent drunk- this shows the importance of PFC in our personalities
27
What did Raine study and what did he find?
He compared 27 psychopaths with 32 non psychopaths and found that there was an 18% volume reduction in the amygdala (with a thinning of the cortex) and an 11% reduction of grey matter of the PFC in people with APD
28
Why are Raine's findings significant?
He proved that the PFC is related to our personalities
The amydala is responsible for emotions (empathy, remorse guilt) so the fact that APD people had a smaller amygdala highlights how it is involved with the disorder
29
What are the 2 genes that have been identified to relate to crime?
MAOA and CDH13
30
How is CDH13 linked to criminality?
It is believed that a high activity of CDH13 interrupts the building and strengthening of some neural networks during their development. Abnormal form of this gene is linked to offending
31
What is the monamine hypothesis?
The monamines (seratonin, dopamine, noradrenaline) are received and broken down by enzyme MAOA which is controlled by the gene MAOA.
If you lack MAOA gene you'll be unable to reduce levels of monamines at the normal rate.
Lower activity of MAOA leads to increased levels of monamines, supported by Virkunen's research
32
What did Brunner research and what were his findings?
He studied a Dutch family in relation to violence and genetic abnormality. He found that the violent males had a faulty MAOA gene, and they also had a borderline mental retardation syndrome.
33
What did Virkunen et al. find?
That criminals whose crime was compulsive had lower levels of seratonin then violent criminals whose crime was planned.
34
What did Mendrick research?
He was responsible for looking at adoption studies. He compared if they were criminal with different types of parent.
35
How are biological explanations deterministic, and how is this used?
They are deterministic because it implies that the individual does not have the capacity to control their innate criminal urges; this was used in the court to defend crime. It was used by a criminals defence called Stanley Waldrop but they had to also show history of an abusive childhood to be considered less responsible. This supports the idea of diathesis stress, a more holistic approach. It is hard for some people with a genetic
36
How are there real world applications of the biological explanation?
Now we understand that an unnusual amount of neurotransmitter levels play a role, we can treat these with drug interventions. SSRI can increase seratonin levels, which could also have good impacts on the individuals mental health. Although, it is reductionist, as childhood experiences could have caused this, so we could help people by investing in counselling as well, which would have long term economical impacts.
37
What is Eysenck's theory based on?
Social and psychological life experiences. He believes offending is due to a criminal personality which is biological in origin (innate biological basis) due to what type of nervous system we inherit
38
What are the three levels of Eysenck's theory that he believed led to offending?
Biological- type of nervous system we inherit
Psychological- criminal personality type
Social- responses to socialisation (reward and punishment)
These collectively lead to offending behaviour
39
What are the three dimensions of personality proposed by Eysenck?
Extraversion to Introversion
Neuroticism to stability
Psychoticism to normality
40
What is the criminal personality type?
Neurotic extravert
41
What is extraversion?
Related to arousal level; they have a chronically under aroused nervous system so they seek external simulation to increase arousal and take more risks, engaging in dangerous behaviour
42
What is neuroticism?
They have reactive sympathetic nervous systems as they are often emotionally unstable, especially under pressure. They may over-react in threats.
43
What is psychoticism?
This is related to high testosterone levels so men are more likely to be at this end of the spectrum. Aggression and a lack of empathy
44
What is the role of socialisation in Eysenck's theory?
This is the idea that conditioning is used in children and socialisation processes teach children delayed gratification and how to behave in social situations, because they are punished for anti-social behaviours. Eysenck believed that offending was an immature, selfish way of receiving immediate gratification and people with the neurotic extravert type are difficult to condition so they are more likely to become criminal.
45
What is a criticism of Eysenck's personality theory?
The theory assumes that personality is consisent, but psychological research has proposed a situational perspective so someone may be calm and relaxed at home and neurotic at work, displaying different traits based on the situation. Furthermore, the self-report basis of the theory may lead to social desirability bias; it may not represent reality.
46
How can we apply Eysenck's theory to have benefits?
If we know that this personality type could be used to predict delinquency we could modify the socialisation experiences and conditioning of children who may be more likely to offend, so you could argue the theory could have some applications in preventing or treating offenders, however it does not form a concrete prediction of delinquency.
47
What are cognitive distortions and how can they explain criminality?
Faulty, biased, irrational ways of thinking that mean we perceive ourself and the outside world in a way that doesn't match reality and is usually negative, but they don't understand its not accurate. In the context of offending, these distortions allow and offender to reduce negative emotions
48
What is hostile attribution bias?
This is the tendency to misinterpret other peoples actions/words/expressions as aggressive or provocative when in reality they arent. Non-aggressive cues can trigger disproportionate and even violent responses. This allows offenders to rationalise their offending behavior by blaming other factors
49
What would be an example of hostile attribution bias?
Being looked at by a stranger may trigger aggression or frustration by the individual who may assault the stranger
50
What is minimalisation?
This is underplaying the consequences and seriousness of an action to reduce negative emotions such as guilt, which helps the individual to accept the consequences of their own offences
51
What is Kohlberg's theory of moral reasoning?
This refers to how an individual draws on their own value system to determine if an action is right or wrong.
52
Why and how do children/people develop through the stages of moral reasoning?
Because of biological maturity and also having opportunities to discuss and develop their thinking.
53
What are the three levels of Kohlberg's moral reasoning theory?
Pre-conventional
Conventional
Post-conventional
54
What is the pre-conventional level in Kohlberg's moral reasoning theory??
This is when reasoning is based on whether an act will lead to punishment or what will be gained. They are orientated towards rewards, and avoid punishment. Children under 10 years old
55
What is the conventional level in Kohlberg's moral reasoning theory??
This is reasoning based on what other people expect and doing duties as a citizen. Conformity so social rules is seen as desirable. 'Good boy' or 'good girl' orientation and social order orientation.
56
What is the post-conventional level in Kohlberg's moral reasoning theory??
This is reasoning based on what is impartially right, and democratic rules can be challenged if they compromise the rights of others, so is based on one's own ethical principles. They are orientated towards social and individual rights, and their conscience.
57
How does moral reasoning/Kohlberg's theory link to explaining offending?
Because criminal offenders are more likely to be classified at the pre-conventional level whereas non-criminals progress further. This means they avoid punishment and gain rewards- they have an immature and child like reasoning
They may commit crime if they feel they could avoid punishment or gain reward- they feel breaking the law is justified is the reward is better than the punishment
58
What did Palmer find which supports Kohlberg/ the cognitive explanation?
He compared moral reasoning, between a group of 210 female non-offenders, 112 male non-offenders and 126 convicted offenders, using the socio-moral reflection measure which contains moral dilemma related questions such as not stealing. The offenders showed less mature moral reasoning than the non-delinquent groups, which could be explained by a lack of moral teaching/play opportunities during childhood.
59
How can cognitive explanations be applied in a positive way?
Because we can treat offenders if we understand that cognitive thinking plays a role in causing delinquency. In Chicago, young men were given CBT to reduce cognitive distortions. The ppts that had attended 13 one hour sessions had a 44% reduction in arrests compared to a control group. So, it can be very useful in rehabilitating people and improving mental health.
60
Who proposed the differential association theory?
Sutherland 1939
61
What does differential assocation theory suggest?
That individuals learn the values, attitudes, techniques and motives for criminal behaviour through association and interaction with others who have more or less favourable attitudes towards crimes. Their attitudes then influence their own criminal attitudes and behaviour, through the process of learning.
62
What does offending depend on, according to differential association theory?
It depends on the criminal norms and values of the offender's social group, so what types of crimes are acceptable and desirable and what methods of committing crimes there are.
63
What kind of social group is more likely to encourage crime?
Where the social groups value criminal behaviour
64
How does learning in differential association happen?
Through direct reinforcement (operant conditioning) and observation, because if their role models are vicariously reinforced for committing a crime then they are likely to imitate. Also during the critical period, as our IWM is important.
65
From what two factors does criminality arise, according to DA theory?
- learning of behaviour towards crime
| - the learning of specific criminal acts
66
What are the key principles of DA theory?
- criminal behaviour is learned not inherited
- through association with intimate personal groups
- this teaches them techniques and attitudes
- learning is directional- either for or against crime
- if favourable attitudes outweigh negative attitudes then the individual will become an offender
- learning experiences vary in frequency and intensity
- criminal behaviour is learnt in the same way any other behaviour is learnt
- general needs (e.g. for money) is not a sufficient explanation for crime because not everyone turns to crime when they need this
67
How has differential association theory had positive impacts in our understanding of crime?
This is because we understand that crime is not just down to an individual but it is in fact caused by social processes. This is good because people are not labelled or determined as 'bad'. Therefore, we can invest in social and psychological support for neighbourhoods with high crime rates or gangs in order to promote a more negative perception of crime amongst the population, and intervene with the learning of young people before they learn from peers that crime is perceived as favourable. For example, 40% of sons of fathers with a criminal conviction had committed a crime before the age of 18, compared to around 13% in general population
68
How is differential association theory slightly reductionist?
Because it ignores biological factors, which are proven to be significant in causing crime as well. For example, there are genetic factors or early experiences which could affect brain development, for example the MAOA gene, which are important in the development of anti-social behaviors. A diathesis-stress model which is more holistic may offer a better account by combining social factors with biological ones. Link to study- 40% of sons of criminal fathers had committed a crime before the age of 18, compared with 13% of general population
69
What are the two main features of the psychodynamic explanation?
- the inadequate superego
| - maternal deprivation theory
70
Briefly explain what psychodynamic beliefs are?
These are unconscious conflicts and innate drives that are rooted in early childhood and determined by interactions with parents
71
When and how is the superego developed?
This is formed at the end of the phallic stage of psychosexual development when children resolve the oedipus or electra complex. They internalise the superego of the same sex parent.
72
What is the superego?
This works on the morality principle and exerts its influence by punishing the ego through guilt and wrong-doing, whilst rewarding it with pride for moral behaviour
73
What did Blackburn argue (psychodynamic)?
That if the superego is somehow deficient or inadequate then offending behaviour is inevitable , as the ID is not properly controlled
74
What are the three types of inadequate superegos?
Weak/underdevloped
Deviant
Over harsh/over developed
75
What is the weak/underdeveloped superego?
- if the same sex parent is absent during the phallic stage then the child cannot internalise a fully formed superego as there is no opportunity for identification ie the superego is weak
- this would make offending behaviour more likely because they have little control over their anti-social behaviour and is likely to act in ways that gratify their instinctual id impulses
76
What type of crime can a weak/under developed superego lead to?
Petty crime
77
What is the deviant superego?
If the superego that the child internalises has immoral or deviant values (e.g. a child with a criminal parent), this may lead to offending behavior because the child may not associate wrong-doing with guilt. -links to cognitive explanations/a lack of free will
78
What is the over-harsh/over-developed superego?
This is when a child may internalise the superego of a very strict same sex parent, so they develop an excessively harsh superego. This means that the individual experiences a lot of guult and anxiety most of the time because any time the individual acts on their id impulses they feel bad. This may subconsciously drive the individual to offend with a wish to be caught in order to satisfy the superego's overwhelming need for punishment and to reduce their guilt
79
What type of crime would an over-harsh/over-developed superego lead to?
Serious and repetitive crime
80
How does Bowlby's theory of maternal deprivation link to the psychodynamic explanation?
Because Bowlby proposed the ability to form meaningful social relationships in adulthood was dependent on a close, warm and continuous relationship with the mother figure in the first few years. This relationship acts as a template for all future relationships so the disruption of this impairs the person's ability to relate to others, resulting in affectionless psychopathy, demonstrated by his 44 thieves study
81
How is there gender bias in Freud's theory?
Freud proposed women develop a weaker superego than men. He believed that there was little reason for anyone to identify with a woman because he regarded them as lower in social status, so girls identification with their mothers was weaker. If he was right then women should be more likely to become criminals than men- this is not right, as men typically commit more crime then women, especially violent crime. ALPHA BIAS.
82
How is the psychodynamic theory holistic which makes it good?
Because it considers emotional factors (free will). Unlike cognitive theories, it takes into account the involvement of feelings of anxiety or rejection in offending. It also recognises the role of innate biological desires and early childhood experiences, so multiple factors are considered and offers a holistic and useful approach which considers the effects of early childhood in criminality.
83
What is custodial sentencing?
It involves convicted offenders being punished by spending time in prison (incarceration) or another enclosed institution such as a young offenders institute or psychiatric hospital
84
What is deterrence?
This is an unpleasant prison experience can put off individuals (individual deterrence) or society at large (general deterrence), from engaging in offending behaviour.
85
What is individual deterrence?
How people themselves can be put off offending because of the prison consequence. Based on punishment in operant conditioning.
86
What is general deterrence?
How society at large can be put off offending by the prison sentence. This is based on vicarious punishment.
87
What is incapacitation?
The offenders taken out of society to prevent reoffence and protect the public.
88
What is retribution?
Society is getting revenge by making the offender suffer- this should be proportionate with the severity of the crime
89
What is rehabilitation?
The offender can be reformed and made into a better person via education or therapy, to fit back into society
90
What are the 4 aims of custodial sentencing?
Deter others
Incapacitation
Retribution
Rehabilitation
91
What is an example of a flawed prison and what are some problems there?
Wandsworth- known for a violent atmosphere with rape, drugs, violence and psychological pressures
92
What are some psychological effects of custodial sentencing?
- de-individuation
- depression, stress, self-harm, suicide
- overcrowding and a lack of privacy
- effects on the family (e.g. if you have children- maternal deprivation)
- 'prisonisation'- think DA theory being around criminals
Positive effects:
- feelings of remorse
- rehabilitation
93
What is recidivism?
This is the problem of reoffending- a tendency to relapse into a previous way of behaving (committing more crimes).
94
What are the recidivism rates and what does this suggest?
50% of adults were reconvicted for doing the same crime within a year of relapse
67% of under 18s are reconvicted within a year
The cost of re-offending/recidivism is extremely high (almost £10 billion per year) for the economy and it suggests that the current prison system/punishment (and rehabilitation) is not working
95
How do Norwegian prisons have such low recidivism rates?
They have the lowest rates in the world, because their prisons are much more open and humanistic than the UK and there is greater emphasis on rehabilitation and gaining future skills. They have therapeutic communities.
96
What are the problems with custodial sentencing on mental health (evaluation)?
In the last 20 years, suicide rates among offenders tend to be 15 times higher than those in general society- the most at risk group are young men in the first 24 hours of confinement. Prisoners are also likely to experience symptoms of psychosis, which suggests that the prison regime is so oppressive that it triggers psychological problems in those who are vulnerable. Cost benefit analysis- making people suffer in this way is not worth it.
97
How does custodial sentencing link to differential association theory?
Prison may increase the likelihood of reoffending rather than decrease it because in an environment full of people with pro-criminal attitudes, they may learn techniques for committing crime in prison and in the real world. Placing low risk offenders with high risk offenders makes it likely that the low risk will offend. This is a weakness of the system.
98
What is behaviour modification in custody based on?
Operant conditioning. Undesirable behaviours are replaced with desirable behaviours which are reinforced whereas punishing disobedience in the hope that the disobedience will stop.
99
What are the aims of behaviour modification in custody?
- effective management and monitoring of offenders during their sentence
- reducing the likelihood of recidivism
100
How does the token economy system work?
- Tokens are rewarded immediately after each time the offender performs a desirable behaviour. These act as secondary reinforcers
- Secondary reinforcer tokens can be swapped for better rewards like a phone call with a loved one
- Learnt desirable behaviours are associated with a reward so they will be repeated
- Tokens/rewards can be removed as a punishment (negative reinforcement)
- Behaviours are changed in increments (shaping) so that desirable behaviours are broken into small steps. This works towards long term goals
