Attachment Flashcards
1
Q
What is an attachment?
A
A close two way emotional bond between 2 individuals in which they both see the other as essential for their own emotional security.
2
Q
How can we recognise attachment?
A
When people display:
- proximity (physically attached)
- separation anxiety
- secure base behaviour(even when were independent we like to make contact with the attachment figures)
3
Q
What is a caregiver?
A
Any person who provides support for a child.
4
Q
What is a caregiver-infant interaction?
A
The communication between an infant and caregiver, which helps the child’s social development and forms the basis of the attachment of the two.
5
Q
What is reciprocity?
A
A caregiver infant interaction, its a two way/mutual process. Each party responds to the other’s signals, taking turns.
6
Q
What is interactional synchrony?
A
When a caregiver and infant reflect the actions and emotions of the other in a coordinated/synchronised way, basically mirroring each other.
7
Q
What was the still face experiment?
A
The caregiver plays and coos with the baby for some time, then looks away, and comes to look back at the baby with no emotions or expression. This lab study proved that if the mother/caregiver showed no attention then the baby would get upset and distressed and start doing things for attention.
8
Q
What happened in Meltzoff and Moore’s study?
A
A controlled observation study where a video of 4 stimuli (three facial expressions and 1 hand gesture) done by an adult and an independent observer counted all the times the infant performed one. The facial expressions were opening and closing the mouth and sticking the tongue out.
9
Q
What does Meltzoff and Moore’s research suggest, but what goes against this?
A
That imitation behaviours are innate. Piaget suggested that this was more of a ‘response training’/result of operant conditioning because the adult smiles back as a response.
10
Q
What are the problems with testing infant’s behaviour in caregiver-infant interactions?
A
Because it is unreliable. Babies’ mouths are constantly moving and the M+M tested stimuli occur very frequently, meaning its hard to distinguish between normal and imitated behaviour. M+M overcame these problems by getting an outsider to judge the infants and inter-reliability scores were very high, but their findings could not be replicated so unreliable.
11
Q
How are there individual differences in caregiver-infant interactions?
A
Because it was found that strongly attached infant-caregiver pairs showed greater interactional synchrony and as well as this, it was showed infants who show a lot of imitation from birth have a better quality of relationship after 3 months. There are clearly individual differences but the cause of these aren’t explained.
12
Q
How has Meltzoff+Moores research been valuable in social development?
A
Because Meltzoff explains why/how infants begin to understand others and therefore develop relationships. This theory is called ‘theory of mind’ and is important in conducting social relationships.
13
Q
What is stage 1 of the stage of attachment?
A
Indiscriminate attachments
14
Q
What is stage 2 of the stages of attachment?
A
The beginnings of attachment
15
Q
What is stage 3 of the stages of attachment?
A
Discriminate attachment
16
Q
What is stage 4 of the stages of attachment?
A
Multiple attachments
17
Q
What happens in the indiscriminate attachment stage?
A
Birth –> two months
Infants produce similar responses to all innate or animate objects but show a greater preference for social stimuli, e.g. smiling. During this time, interactional synchrony and reciprocity play a role in establishing an infants relationship with others
18
Q
What happens in the beginnings of attachment stage?
A
By 4 months
Infants prefer human company over inanimate objects and can distinguish familiarity in people. They can be comforted by anyone but don’t show stranger anxiety.
19
Q
What happens in the discriminate attachment stage?
A
By 7 months old
Infants develop seperation anxiety and reunion joy because they are said to have developed a primary attachment figure. They also develop stranger anxiety.
20
Q
What happens in the multiple attachment stage?
A
After the main attachment is formed, the infant develops a wider circle of multiple attachments (depending if they are consistent)
21
Q
How may the research by Schaffer and Emerson be unreliable?
A
Because it was based on self report from the mothers of their children; some mothers may have been less sensitive to their babies protests and might not have reported them, or they may have shown volunteer bias which would change the validity of the data.
22
Q
How was there a biased sample in Schaffer and Emerson’s research?
A
Because it was of a working-class population in Glasgow so the findings may not generalize to other classes. it was also done in the 1960s, and society/parenting is very different e.g. women go out to work so the children may spend less time with them. The no. of fathers who stay home and care for children has also increased; if S+E’s study was replicated it might have different findings.
23
Q
How is Schaffer and Emerson’s study biased towards individualist cultures?
A
Because individualists (e.g. UK) prioritise the needs of their closest family or themselves whereas collectivists prioritise the group/many people and share a lot e.g. childcare. Thus, multiple attachments may be more common here.
24
Q
What did Lorenz research?
A
Lorenz took gosling eggs and divided them into 2 groups; half was a control group with their mother, and the other half was raised by him. When the all the goslings were together with Lorenz and the actual mother, he found that all the geese he raised followed him and showed no interest/recognition of the mother, whereas the others followed the mother.
25
What is imprinting?
An innate readiness to develop a strong bond with the mother which takes place during a critical period. Lorenz found this is irreversible and long lasting. It also helps to predict what the animal will be attracted to (animals tend to go for animals of same species esp birds)
26
How long is the critical period of imprinting?
The first few hours after birth/hatching.
27
Why did Harlow research into comfort-attachment?
Because he wanted to demonstrate that attachment was not based on the feeding bond illustrated by learning theory. Comfort > cupboard
28
What was the procedure of Harlow's study?
Created two wire mothers- one was wrapped in a soft cloth. 8 monkeys were studied for a period of 165 days and 4 monkeys were randomly assigned to each mother; either the milk bottle was on the cloth mother or on the wire mother. Harlow measured the amount of time each infant spent with the 'mother' and also attempted to scare the monkeys to see if they would seek comfort from 'mother'.
29
What were the findings of Harlow's research?
Regardless of whether the cloth mother had the feeding bottle, all monkeys spent the most time with it. The monkeys kept returning to it, and when frightened, they clung to it. This suggests that infants do not develop attachment to the person who feeds them, but the person who gives them comfort.
30
What were the long-lasting effects on Harlow's monkeys?
The motherless monkeys developed abnormally (socially- freezing when approached by other monkeys, sexually- didn't show normal mating behaviour). They also became bad parents when they were older.
However, there is a critical period- if the monkeys were less than 3 months old and spent time with the other monkeys they seemed to recover.
if they had the wire mother for 6 months they couldn't recover.
31
How is there research support for imprinting?
Other studies have replicated it; external validity and reliability. Guiton demonstrated that chicks who were exposed to yellow rubber gloves when they were being fed as newborns imprinted on the gloves (the figure can be inanimate). They also tried to mate with the gloves; clear support for Lorenz's findings. However, they found imprinting is not permanent- chicks spending time with other chicks were sexually normal (thus imprinting is just like learning). Problems with animal studies- are humans really attracted to what they first see at birth?
32
What was the confounding variable in Harlow's study?
The monkeys both had heads. One had a more 'monkey-looking' head which the monkeys could've preferred. Therefore there is less internal validity.
33
What are the problems with generalising animal studies to humans?
Because were ultimately very different; we act more consciously, we have bigger and different brains etc. However, we are similar to monkeys (evolution). Harlow's research is supported by Schaffer+Emerson, infants not attached to the person that feeds them the most.
34
What ethical problems are there in Harlow's research?
- long lasting emotional harm in the monkeys
- they found it difficult to form peer relationships
- they obviously cannot consent
Do the benefits outweigh the negatives? (L+H research has been significant for humans)
35
What did Schaffer and Emerson find about the role of the father?
They are a lot less likely to be primary attachment figures than mothers. 65% of primary care givers were mothers, compared to only 3% were fathers (the rest were combination)
36
Why is it believed that men are less likely to be the primary caregiver?
Because they may not be psychologically equipped to form an intense attachment, as women are more emotionally sensitive (link to androgyny- women have more caretaking/sensitive traits).
Biological reasons- oestrogen in women can underly caring behaviour
Social reasons- society sees caring behaviour as less masculine; cultural roles
37
How is the role of the father changing in society?
Women more likely to have a bigger role in the working world; childcare is needed such as nursery. It is more normalised for men to care for children and this is not seen as 'feminine'.
38
What is an impact that the role of the father can have on a child?
Encouraging more risk taking behaviours; this is because fathers are more likely to engage in playful behaviour.
Also, a strong attachment with the father was found to increase the child's ability to make friends in an observation of preschool kids. A strong relationship with father = better socialisation skills
39
What is learning theory of attachment?
This explains behaviour and the development of attachment as a result of learning via operant and classical conditioning, as when we are born we are a a blank slate. Children attach to the care giver because their physical needs (food) are met- 'cupboard love'
40
What is classical conditioning in relation to learning theory of attachment?
Food (UCS) produces an UCR of pleasure in the child
NS is the mother, as she feeds the infant. However, before the process she produces no response. Over time via association, the UCS and NS become a CS which produce pleasure in the child. The CS is now the mother by herself which produces pleasure.
41
What is operant conditioning in relation to learning theory of attachment?
Drive reduction theory- a hungry infant has a drive to reduce the discomfort they feel, thus when they are fed they feel pleasure and are rewarded (NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT). Food is a primary reinforcer, mother is secondary. Mother is also negatively reinforced, as the infant stops crying which produces peace and quiet.
42
How does Harlow's research go against the learning theory?
Because he found that all his monkeys chose proximity and comfort with the cloth mother, who they attached to, instead of where they could get fed. This shows that comfort is more important than cupboard love. Thus learning theory is oversimplified and reductionist as it ignores important factors.
43
What is some context about Bowlby's research?
He worked as a psychiatrist with emotionally disturbed children, and observed that many of these children experienced early seperations from their family which lead him to his first theory, 'maternal deprivation', which led him to think deeper about the nature/function of an attachment bond. He was inspired by the research of Lorenz and Harlow.
44
Why does attachment form, according to Bowlby?
Attachment is an evolutionary process which serves an important survival function, because an infant who is not attach is less protected. It is an innate two way process; the parent must be attached to the child too. Babies have an innate drive to become attached.
45
What is Bowlby's critical period?
Innate behaviours usually have a fixed time frame, a critical period for development (e.g. learning to walk) but the critical period of attachment is around 3-6 months. If an infant does not attach during this period there are consequences and it will struggle to form attachments later on.
46
How long is Bowlby's critical period of attachment?
3 to 6 months
47
What are social releasers?
During the critical period, these allow the parent to attach to the child. They are behaviours or characteristics, like smiling or having a baby face (big eyes). Innate mechanisms that explain how attachments to infants are formed.
48
What is monotropy?
This is the idea that the one relationship that the infant has with their primary attachment figure is of special significance in emotional development. The mother tends to be this figure, and infants can make secondary attachments (e.g. the father)
49
Why is monotropy so important?
One infant has one special relationship and forms a mental representation of this called the internal working model. The continuity hypothesis.
50
What is the internal working model and what are its impacts?
In the short term it gives the child insight into the caregiver's behaviour and enables the child to influence the caregiver's behaviour and in the long term it creates schema and acts as a template for all future relationships as it tells the child what to expect of intimate relationships are like. The continuity hypothesis supports this; a good internal working model of a healthy secure attachment leads to trusting and confident adults.
51
What is the continuity hypothesis?
This is the idea that emotionally secure and healthy attached infants become emotionally secure and socially confident adults in future
52
What is A Snap Chat Makes Images? (Bowlby)
```
A-
S- social releasers
C- continuity hypothesis
M- monotropy
I- internal working model
```
53
How does Lorenz's theory support the monotropic theory?
Because his findings about the attachment process of imprinting is also an innate process with a critical period; the geese displayed monotropic behaviour because they attached to one person/animal. However, the Romanian orphans were able to attach after the critical period although they faced more long term problems. Thus, slightly deterministic.
54
How is the idea of monotropy/maternal care over-exaggerated?
It puts a lot of pressure on the mother to sufficiently care for the child as the child's future development is dependent on them. This means they will feel pressure to stay home from work- economical and mental health implications. Furthermore, it was found that infants with a network of multiple healthy attachments supports their needs better (link to role of father).
55
Why did Ainsworth devise the strange situation?
She wanted to systematically test the nature of attachment in infants, when they are under conditions of mild stress, and test the individual differences within attachment types.
56
What was the procedure of Ainsworth's strange situation?
A controlled observation in which the caregiver and child were recorded. There were eight episodes that they went through including strangers, and parent leaving the room. It measured separation anxiety, reunion behaviours, stranger anxiety and secure base behaviour. It was observed via the video or through a one way mirror room.
57
What 3 main things were measured by Ainsworth's strange situation?
Stranger anxiety
Seperation anxiety
Reunion behaviour
58
What were the findings of Ainsworth's strange situation?
There were similarities and differences in the way the infants behaved; but there were 3 main patterns of behaviour which added up to be different types of attachments.
59
What is the secure attachment type?
- They have moderate stranger anxiety; slight distress
- They have moderate separation anxiety; slight distress but not likely to cry
- They are happy on reunion
- Secure base behaviour; when anxious they seek proximity and like comfort from caregiver
60
What is the insecure avoidant attachment type?
- low stranger anxiety; they avoid interaction
- no seperation anxiety; little response to seperation
- avoids contact on reunion; do not seek proximity during reunion but will not resist being picked up
- characterised by high anxiety
61
What is the insecure resistant attachment type?
- high stranger anxiety; immediate distress
- high separation anxiety; immediate distress
- seeks and rejects caregiver on reunion; conflicting desires
62
What is a weakness of Ainsworth's research?
Insecure disorganised. It overlooked a fourth type of attachment, in which the child displays a lack of consistent patterns of behaviour; they don't have a consistent way of dealing with, e.g., being separated from their caregiver. In the meta analysis of Van Ijzendoorn et al. they found that 15% of US children fit into this category. Ainsworth is reductionist; does not consider children who do not show consistent behaviour.
63
What are some evaluations about the strange situation?
- It was highly controlled but because it was an observation study it has great reliability. The observers had 0.94 agreement inter rater reliability which shows that there was consistency
- Population validity- middle class American infants, individualist culture. Collectivist cultures- multiple people are more likely to care for a child thus it will attach to different people. Cannot be generalised to a whole population when it only focuses on one group.
64
What was the reasoning of research into cultural variations in attachment?
Because Bowlby's research suggests that attachment is a biological and innate process thus a secure attachment would be best for humans regardless of culture. It was used to investigate different childrearing methods but also the dominance of a secure attachment.
65
What was the procedure of Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg's study of cultural variations?
They conducted a meta-analysis of the findings of 32 studies of attachment behaviour, with more than 2000 strange situation classifications across 8 countries. They wanted to see if there was cultural differences between countries, and also within the same cultures.
66
What 8 countries did Van Izjendoorn and Kroonenberg study?
The US, Great Britain, Germany, Sweden, Netherlands, Israel, Japan and China
67
What were the findings of Van Izjendoorn and Kroonenberg's study?
They found that the secure attachment type was the most common in every country. Insecure avoidant was the second most common, with Germany having the largest proportion of avoidant. Insecure resistant was the most common in Israel and Japan.
Secure was the most common everywhere which suggests that it is the norm and is the best for healthy social and emotional development. Supports the idea that attachment is an innate biological process.
68
What are cultural variations?
The ways that different groups of people vary in terms of their social practices and the effects these have on infant development and behaviour.
69
What is a study that supports Van Izendoorn and Kroonenberg's research?
The study of an african tribe. They all lived in extended family groups, and the infants were all looked after and breastfed by different women but they slept with their mother at night. They showed one primary attachment despite the collectivist culture- secure.
70
What is significant about the findings of attachment in Germany?
They had the highest amount of insecure avoidant children. German culture involves keeping distance between parents and children so infants do not engage in proximity seeking behaviour, and are brought up to be very independent.
71
What is significant about the findings of attachment in Japan?
In Japan, infants rarely experience seperation from their mothers because the role of the woman is to provide constant care for the child and they are not expected to work after having children. This may explain their distress during the strange situation experiment (making them seem insecurely attached).
72
How is there culture bias within Van Izjendoorn and Kroonenberg's study?
Because the strange situation was based on US culture and used only middle class Americans, it already has population validity problems. This is being applied world wide, which is not generalisable as it disregards other ways of culture. They also used 18 studies out of 32 based in the US whereas only 1 in China. ETHNOCENTRIC BIAS. It seems like it comparing countries rather than cultures, because it disregards the different subcultures within one country.
73
What are the impacts of global culture on cultural variations and why is this a weakness of this research?
Bowlby suggests attachment is an innate mechanism which is not altered by culture, but VI and Kroonenberg did a meta analysis of 32 studies and concluded that some cultural similarities could be explained by the effect of mass media which spreads ideas of parenting so as a result, children and parents are exposed to similar sort of things. This too is dominated by the western world- global culture impacts.
74
What is deprivation?
Losing something- in the context of child development, deprivation refers to the loss of emotional care that is normally provided for by a primary caregiver
75
What did Bowlby believe about the value of maternal care?
Before him, people thought that children would be okay to be separated from their caregiver as long as they had a good standard of food and physical care, but Bowlby did not agree. He believed that infants/childreen need a warm intimate and continuous relationship with a mother (or permanent mother substitute) to ensure normal mental health.
76
What did Bowlby find about the critical period of maternal deprivation?
A child who is between birth and two and a half years are denied of maternal care because of frequent and or prolonged seperations may become emotionally disturbed, if there is no substitute mother available. There is a risk until age 5
77
When is the critical period of maternal deprivation?
Between birth and 2 and a half years, but there is a risk up to age 5
78
What things need to happen in maternal deprivation for emotional disturbance to actually happen?
- it has to happen within the critical period
| - there is no substitute mother figure available
79
What did Bowlby suggest that the long term consequences of deprivation were?
- emotional maladjustment
| - mental health problems such as depression
80
What was the procedure of Bowlby's 44 thieves study?
He analysed case histories of a number of patients in the clinic for disturbed children where he worked, because all of the children were emotionally maladjusted. 88 children were studied- 44 were thieves, other half was a control group. He suggested that some of these thieves were affectionless psychopaths. He analysed whether they had experiences separation from their mothers before the age of 2.
81
What were the findings of the 44 thieves study?
He found that those who were diagnosed as affectionless psychopaths had experienced frequent early separations from their mother. This could have been foster homes or hospitals. 86% of the affectionless thieves had, whereas only 17% of the normal thieves. Almost none of the control group had.
Thus, early separations may lead to affectionless psychopathy/emotional maladjustment and even crime.
82
What percent of the affectionless psychopath thieves had experienced maternal deprivation?
86%
83
What is a real world application of Bowlby's findings of maternal deprivation?
It had a very significant positice impact on post-war thinking about childrearing and how children were looked after in care homes and hospitals. For example, before, visits from parents were discouraged and even forbidden but after this research it was encouraged. In care homes children have assigned primary caregivers who spend a lot of time with them in order to prevent emotional maladjustment.
84
What is some context behind the orphans in romania?
During the romanian dictatorship, large families were encouraged and abortions were banned but many of these children could not be cared for so they went into the institutions. They spent their days alone in cribs with little cognitive or emotional stimulation, malnourished and uncared for. Many were adopted by western families.
85
What was the procedure of Rutter's research?
He studied English and Romanian adoptees. 165 romanian children who spend their early life in institutions . 111 were adopted before the age of two years and a further 54 by the age of four.
They were tested at regular intervals (ages 4, 6, 11 and 15) to access their physical, cognitive and social development. They interviewed their parents and teachers. Their progress was compared to a group of English children adopted in the Uk before age 6 months.
86
What were the findings of Rutter's research?
At the time of adoption Romanian orphans were less developed in physical, cognitive, and social aspects. They were physically smaller and weighed less and some were even mentally retarded. By age 4, some of them had caught up with the British group (if they had been adopted before age 6 months).
Follow-ups found significant deficits in a minority of those who were not adopted until beyond 6 months old- they had disinhibited attachments and problems with forming peer relationships.
87
What are the effects of institutionalization?
- physical under-development (developmental dwarfism, physically smaller)
- cognitive and intellectual underfunctioning (they had lower IQ scores)
- disinhibited attachment (a form of insecure attachment in which children do not discriminate between attachment figures and are clingy and attention-seeking with all)
- grow up to be poor parents (Harlow's monkeys that were raised by a fake mother grew up to be cold and rejecting parents)
88
How are their individual differences within institutionalisation?
Because not all children who experience institutionalisation are unable to recover, as some are not as strongly affected as others. Rutter suggested that maybe some of the children smiled more so they received special attention which may have enabled them to cope better as they were more cared for. Thus it is determinist to conclude that institutionalization inevitably leads to an ability to form attachments.
89
What is the role of the internal working model?
It acts like a schema/mental model and template for future intimate relationships. An infant learns about relationships through personal experience- what they are, how partners in a relationship behave towards each other, and is an operable model of how they will act in future.
90
What is the procedure of Hazan and Shaver's study?
They placed a love quiz in the Rocky Mountain newspaper which asked questions about current attachment experiences and about attachment history to identify current and childhood attachment types, as well as questions measuring the IWM. They analysed 620 responses; just over 200 from men, 400 from women.
91
What were the findings of Hazan and Shaver's study?
When analysing self report responses they found that the prevalence of attachment styles was similar to those in infancy- 56% were secure, 25% as avoidant, 19% resistant.
There was a positive correlation between attachment type and love experiences. Securely attached adults described their love experiences as happy, friendly and trusting- they could love their partner regardless of faults, and these attachments lasted longer (compared to the insecure attachments).
Securely attached individuals seemed to have a positive internal working model.
92
What 4 things were impacted by the IWM?
- Childhood friendships
- Poor parenting
- Romantic relationships
- Mental health
93
How are childhood friendships impacted by the IWM?
Individuals who had secure attachments had the highest social competence in childhood, more popular and more empathetic. This could be explained by the fact a secure attachment indicates high expectations that others are friendly and trusting too.
94
How is poor parenting affected by the IWM?
The lack of a healthy IWM means individuals lack a concept of how to form relationships with their own children. This is supported by Harlow's monkeys.
95
How are romantic relationships affected by the IWM?
The study by Hazan and Shaver showed a link between early attachment type and later relationships; those with secure attachments had better long-lasting relationships.
96
How is mental health affected by the IWM?
A lack of attachment in the critical period in development leads to a lack of an IWM. Children with attachment disorder have no preference of attachment figure, an inability to interact and relate to others as a child and they often experience neglect or frequent change in caregivers. This is recognised as a psychiatric disorder in the DSM.
97
How is Hazan and Shaver's research overly determinist?
Because it suggests that very early experiences have a fixed effect upon later adult relationships; children who are insecurely attached at age 1 are 'doomed' to emotionally unsatisfactory and unhealthy relationships as adults which is unfair. This is not the case, as researchers found many instances where ppts were experiencing happy adult relationships despite not having secure attachments. There are other factors, such as being in one unhealthy relationship which can damage your schema of all future relationships.
98
How may Hazan and Shaver's research lack internal validity?
Because of the self report technique; it was a volunteer sample of people and they may have answered bearing in mind that they want to be seen with socially desirable traits so may have modified their answers. Furthermore, we cannot conclude a causal relationship because of this and other factors that may affect an adult's relationship.
