Approaches: Paper 2 Flashcards
(104 cards)
1
Q
What did Wundt believe in terms of what could be studied scientifically and what was he interested in understanding?
A
Wundt believed that all aspects of nature, including the human mind, could be studied scientifically
He was interested in understanding how people become aware of stimuli (such as sounds or lights) in their environment.
2
Q
What is introspection?
A
He believed that we could measure the contents of the mind in an organised way. This could be done objectively through a method called introspection - looking into one’s own minds.
3
Q
What was reductionism?
A
In addition to this, he also believed the mind should be measured in a reductionist way. This means that he broke behaviour down into elements to be investigated.
4
Q
How did he investigate his belief that the human mind could be studied scientifically?
A
Wundt tried to investigate his belief by asking his participants to focus on an everyday object (metronome) and look inwards to analyse it in terms of its component parts such as noticing sensations and perceptions.
5
Q
How did Wundt contribute to the development of psychology, and what did it lead to?
A
One way Wundt contributed to the development of psychology was through his research in carefully controlled conditions, i.e. experimental methods, as he developed standardised procedures and attempted to produce conditions for replicability.
This encouraged other researchers such as the behaviourists to follow the same experimental approach and be more scientific, allowing psychology to be established as a scientific discipline, becoming known as the ‘Father of Psychology’.
6
Q
Why do Behaviourists disagree with his method of ‘introspection’?
A
However, behavourists argue that introspection was not really scientific even if the methods used to introspect were.
For example, Skinner claims the results of introspection are subjective and cannot be verified because only observable behavior can be objectively measured.
7
Q
What did Wundt focus on and how did this help the development of psychology?
A
Wundt concentrated on three areas of mental functioning; thoughts, images and feelings and some of these areas are still studied in cognitive psychology today.
This means that the study of perceptual processes can be traced back to Wundt.
Therefore, Wundt’s work has been revolutionary in stimulating interest in cognitive psychology.
8
Q
Wundt’s findings unreliable
A
- Conscious experiences are non-observable
- Results are prone to bias as self reports are subjective, this makes it difficult to establish general laws
- Results from reports could not be replicated
9
Q
Why was Wundt’s role in establishing Psychology as a Science important?
A
Wundt’s role in the emergence of psych as a science is significant as it marked the separation of modern scientific psych from its wider philosophical roots.
10
Q
Why do Holistic psychologists disagree with Wundt’s approach of ‘reductionism’?
A
Holistic psychologists argue that behaviour cannot be understood in terms of the components that make them up.
They believe reductionism can lead to oversimplification and a failure to consider that the nature of human behaviour is complex because we still do not fully understand it.
Thus they would criticse Wundt and his reductionist stance on how the mind should be measured
11
Q
Approaches
A
12
Q
What stance do Behaviourists take in terms of determinism?
A01: Behaviourist Approach
A
Behaviourism takes a deterministic stance, arguing that behaviour is learnt from and controlled by forces in the environment meaning we do not have free will or choice.
13
Q
Can you fully explain the concept of ‘Classical Conditioning’?
A01: Behaviourist Approach
A
- Classical conditioning is learning by associating different stimuli with one response.
- This relies on behaviour an animal already possesses such as reflexes.
- An unconditioned stimulus results in an unconditioned response, which is out of the animal’s control.
- When this is paired with a neutral stimulus, we learn to associate them.
- This neutral stimulus can come to elicit a conditioned response through association.
14
Q
What is Operant Conditioning?
A01: Behaviourist Approach
A
Operant conditioning is a type of learning in which the likelihood of a behaviour being repeated can change depending on its consequences.
15
Q
What is Positive Reinforcement?
(provide an example and tell me how it affects the a behaviour’s occurrence.)
A01: Behaviourist Approach
A
Positive reinforcement is a desirable consequence such as a reward when a certain behaviour is performed. For example, praise from the teacher for getting high marks on an assessment. This increases the likelihood of the behaviour being repeated.
16
Q
What is Negative Reinforcement?
(provide an example and tell me how it affects the a behaviour’s occurrence.)
A01: Behaviourist Approach
A
Negative reinforcement is when an unpleasant consequence is avoided. For instance, a student may revise at - home in order to avoid getting a bad result in their test. This increases the likelihood of the behaviour being repeated.
17
Q
What is Punishment?
(provide an example and tell me how it affects the a behaviour’s occurrence.)
A01: Behaviourist Approach
A
Punishment is an unpleasant consequence of behaviour. For example, this may be getting shouted at by the teacher for talking numerous times in class. Punishments decrease the likelihood of that behaviour being repeated.
18
Q
How does the Skinner Box Experiment provide evidence for the existence of ‘Operant Conditioning’ where behaviour can be shaped?
A01: Behaviourist Approach
A
A hungry rat was placed in a cage. Every time he activated the lever a food pellet fell in the food dispenser (positive reinforcement).
The rats quickly learnt to go straight to the lever after a few times of being put in the box
This suggests that positive reinforcement increases the likelihood of the behaviour being repeated.
This experiment was an example of the shaping of behaviour, as Skinner reinforced successive approximations to get to the final target behaviour (i.e.: every time the rat pulled the lever it was given food, even before it had figured out the association).
19
Q
Can you fully outline Pavlov’s Dog Experiment?
A01: Behaviourist Approach
A
Pavlov managed to condition dogs to salivate when they heard a bell.
At first when the dogs where presented the food they salivated. The food was the unconditioned stimulus and the salivation was the unconditioned response.
He then introduced a neutral stimulus which was the bell
. Eventually the dogs salivated when no food was given and just the bell was sounded. The bell was then the conditioned stimulus and the salivation was the conditioned response.
20
Q
Research support for the existence of ‘Classical Conditioning’ from Watson and Rayner
A03: Behaviourist Approach
A
Over time, Little Albert learned to associate the loud noise (which by itself produces a fear response) with the neutral stimulus of the white rat.
The white rat, which used to be a neutral stimulus, eventually produced a fear response without the pairing of a loud noise.
21
Q
Real life applications of behaviourist determinism.
A03: Behaviourist Approach
A
Being deterministic is a strength because by assuming that behaviour is determined by factors in the environment, accurate predictions can be made about behaviour in specific situations and is thus useful as it allows us to modify aspects of everyday human behaviour such as in education.
For example, operant conditioning techniques are used by teachers for effective classroom management.
Therefore, this has useful applications in education as operant conditioning can be used to motivate learners to participate and excel in their studies actively, showing that the behaviourist principles that these applications are based on are valid as they are effective.
22
Q
Why is determinism a problem?
A03: Behaviourist Approach
A
Being deterministic is however a problem because it suggests that an individual does not have free will or choice.
This explanation has implications on the legal system because if adopted it would raise questions as to whether criminals should be punished for their actions because the behaviourist approach suggests that they had no free will or choice in committing their crimes.
23
Q
Behaviourist research is highly scientific (heavily controlled)
A03: Behaviourist Approach
A
A strength of Skinner’s research was his reliance on the experimental method, which uses controlled conditions to discover a possible causal relationship. By manipulating the consequences of behaviour, he was able to accurately measure the effects on the rat’s behaviour.
This allowed him to establish a cause-and-effect relationship between the consequences of a certain behaviour (hitting the lever) and the future frequency of its occurrence.
This adds internal validity to the research whilst also allowing the research to be able to be replicated to increase its reliability through its emphasis on scientific methodology.
24
Q
Why is utilising reductionism a strength of behaviourist research?
A03: Behaviourist Approach
A
Behaviourists utilise a reductionist method which is the belief that human behaviour can be explained by breaking it down into simpler component parts.
This is a strength because it forms the basis of scientific research
. For instance, to establish operationalized variables, breaking down the target behaviour is necessary as it enables meaningful experiments or observations.
The behaviourist approach exemplifies this by illustrating how complex learning behaviour, as seen in Pavlov’s dog study, can be reduced into specific stimulus-response links within the controlled environment of the laboratory.
25
Applied to real life problems such as token economies in prisons...
Can you outline research support for its effectiveness?
A03: Behaviourist Approach
The principles of conditioning can be applied to real life problems and behaviour. For instance, operant conditioning has underpinned the token economy systems that has been used successfully in institutions, such as prison. These work by rewarding obedient behaviour with tokens that can then be exchanged for privileges.
Gendreau and Ross (1979) conducted a meta-analysis of studies on token economies in prisons. The results showed that token economies were associated with a reduction in aggressive behaviour, a decrease in rule violations, and an increase in participation in educational and vocational programs. This increases the reliability of the approach because it has widespread application.
26
Mechanistic lens of human behaviour...
A03: Behaviourist Approach
Moreover, a limitation of the behaviourist approach is that it views animals and humans through a mechanistic lens.
This is a limitation because it considers us as passive and machine-like responders to our environment without any conscious thought into our behaviours, assuming that animals and humans learn in the same way, ignoring the conscious thoughts and emotional realities that we as humans have, which arguably separates us from animals.
Thus, when using animals in experiments, there findings may not be generalisable to human behaviour.
27
Ethical issues of applying behaviourist principles...
A03: Behaviourist Approach
The behaviourist approach has ethical issues as it can be used by gambling companies to encourage people to behave in ways that they wouldn’t rationally choose to.
The behaviourist perspective explains gambling addiction through operant conditioning, where behaviours are shaped by consequences.
This has been negatively applied in real life by gambling companies who strategically use intermittent reinforcement in slot machines to enhance the thrill and positively reinforce the behaviour.
This may lead Individuals finding themselves compelled to gamble more frequently or for longer durations due to the perceived benefits associated with these rewards.
This raises ethical concerns when such conditioning techniques intentionally manipulate individuals, exploiting their psychological vulnerabilities for profit.
28
What does the Social Learning Theory (SLT) propose?
A01: Social Learning Theory
Social learning theory proposes that there is a mediational process between response and stimulus that the behaviourists fail to disregard. Bandura argues that we learn behaviour through observation and imitation of others.
29
What are the four mediational processes in learning?
A01: Social Learning Theory
Attention, Retention, Reproduction, Motivation
30
Can you outline each mediational process fully?
A01: Social Learning Theory
Attention: First, an individual pays attention to the behaviour that the model is performing.
Retention: Then, an individual retains this behaviour, storing it as a memory. Thoughts then allow us to select and learn a behaviour and perform it later.
Reproduction: Then, the observer attempts to perform the behaviour that they had previously remembered.
Motivation: The will to perform the behaviour later depends on whether the behaviour was rewarded or not.
In Vicarious Reinforcement, people observe a behaviour being praised and this leads to the observer being motivated to replicate that behaviour to gain similar praise. This could lead to internalisation of behaviour, where a behaviour becomes part of the observer’s personality
31
What is Identification?
A01: Social Learning Theory
Identification is when an observer associates themselves with a role model and wants to be like the role model.
This means they are more likely to imitate and learn from the behaviour of people they view as role models in a process called modelling.
A person becomes a role model if they are seen to possess similar characteristics to the observer or have high status.
32
Can you fully outline the Bobo Doll Experiment?
A01: Social Learning Theory
Bandura et al recorded the behaviour of young children who watched an adult behave in an aggressive way towards a Bobo.
The adult hit the doll with a hammer and shouted abuse at it. When these children were later observed playing with various toys, including a Bobo doll, they behaved much more aggressively towards the doll and the other toys than those who had observed a non-aggressive adult.
This demonstrated that learning could occur through the observation of role models.
33
Relies on Lab Experiments --> Highly Scientific
A03: Social Learning Theory
This is a strength because his research uses standardised procedures, which make it reliable as they can be repeated.
For example, in the Bobo Doll experiment, all ppts had the same doll and equipment and the same room.
Moreover, the Bobo Doll Experiments have high levels of control. Therefore, meaning that the approach can establish a cause-and-effect relationship between the observation and imitation of role models, establishing the approach as a scientific discipline and demonstrating the research’s high internal validity.
34
One strength of the SLT is that it is less reductionist that other approaches.
A03: Social Learning Theory
This is a strength because it does not reduce complex behaviours such as aggression in children to a simplistic level. Bandura considers the complex interaction between cognitive and environmental factors.
For example, he argues imitation of an action can only occur after a series of mediational processes such as self-efficacy (a belief of how successful they are in performing that observed action).
Therefore, this approach is more holistic than others as it considers both behavioural and cognitive factors when explaining human behaviours.
35
The Social Learning Theory is less deterministic than the behaviourist approach.
A03: Social Learning Theory
Bandura emphasised reciprocal determinism, in the sense that we are not merely influenced by our environment, but we also exert an influence upon it, through the behaviours we choose to perform as we can
For example, select an observed behaviour and store it as a thought (retention) for later reproduction if we so wish it.
This suggests the approach accepts some element of free will in choosing how to behave.
36
Real life applications
A03: Social Learning Theory
This is a strength because SLT principles have been applied in real life by creating intervention models.
For instance, a school might invite a well-known athlete as a role model to promote healthy habits and deter criminal behaviour, as students often strive to identify with and imitate these role models.
37
Another real-life application is that SLT principles have been applied in real life to develop successful treatments for phobias
A03: Social Learning Theory
For example, modelling allows the client to watch another non phobic person who is like them interact with the phobic object.
This provides the patient with vicarious reinforcement because the model is interacting with positive consequences, which could lead the observer who is afraid of the phobic stimulus to replicate that behaviour and eventually learn to interact with the phobic object in a calm and collected way through repeated exposure to modelling.
Therefore, this means that the ideas of observing, imitating, modelling and vicarious reinforcement can be applied in real life to improve the lives of people in the real world who may have anxiety orders such as phobias, so that it does not affect their day-to-day living.
38
One limitation of the SLT is that it does not pay much attention to the impact of biological factors of behaviour.
A03: Social Learning Theory
This is because boys are naturally more aggressive than girls (as seen in the results of the experiment where boys tended to be more aggressive towards the Bobo Doll than the girls) as the presence of testosterone in boys, which from when they were in the womb has had a higher exposure than girls.
This, therefore, explains why in the research males tended to respond more aggressively towards the Bobo Doll than female participants.
39
What is another biological explanation for their behaviours? ---> Mirror Neurones
A03: Social Learning Theory
Moreover, a further biological explanation is that observational learning could be the result of biological factors such as mirror neurons.
Mirror neurons are a type of brain cell that allow us to empathise and imitate the behaviours of others.
Therefore, biological factors may have an influence on our observational learning, which the social learning approach fails to consider.
40
However, one limitation of the SLT approach is that the fact that most of his research relies on laboratory experiments can be criticised for being artificial.
A03: Social Learning Theory
This is a limitation because the children may have been responding to demand characteristics and may have thought they were expected to copy the model due to the unfamiliar environment when they observed and imitated the model’s aggressive behaviour.
Therefore, this means that the social learning approach provides a low external validity of behaviour as the behaviour the children initiated may not be because of observation and imitation.
41
Research support for identification with models
A03: Social Learning Theory
Fox and Bailenson found evidence using computer generated humans engaging in exercise. the models looked either similar or dissimilar to the participant. the participants who viewed the similar model engaged in more exercise in the following 24 hours than those who saw the model loitering or dissimilar model.
They concluded that greater identification with a model leads to more learning because it is easier to visualise the self in the place of model which shows that there is research support to support the idea of identification adding to the strength of this approach.
42
What are the key assumptions and proposals of the cognitive approach?
A01: Cognitive Approach
Argues that internal mental processes should be studied scientifically.
Cognitive approach investigates areas of human behaviour that have been neglected by behaviourists such as attention memory, perception and thought.
43
What are schemas?
How can our schemas distort our memories?
A01: Cognitive Approach
Cognitive processing can often be affected by schemas, which is a cognitive framework that helps us organise and interpret information.
They are based on our previous experiences meaning that as you get older, schemas become more detailed and sophisticated.
However, schemas can also lead to distortion of memory as the human mind attempts to create beliefs and expectations based on stereotypes and prejudice that are consistent with our schemas based on previous experience.
44
What is a theoretical model, and can you explain an example of one?
A01: Cognitive Approach
It is a model with which to study internal process.
The mind is like a computer:
- Stimuli in the environment act as an input, our mind then processes this input and then our behaviour acts as an output.
- Input (Stimuli) --> Processing ---> Output (Behaviour).
- This is called the Computer Analogy.
45
What is cognitive neuroscience and what has it allowed us to discover?
A01: Cognitive Approach
Cognitive Neuroscience is the scientific study of brain structures on mental processes.
It has allowed us to discover specialised regions in our brain such as the visual cortex which provided evidence for the location of each region/component of the brain and what their specific function is.
46
Why have advances in brain imaging been influential?
A01: Cognitive Approach
Advances in brain imaging techniques such as PET scans have led scientists to be able to discern and describe the neurological basis of mental processes.
For example, in Tulving et al's research involving tasks that required the use of episodic and semantic memory were able to show how these different types of long-term memory may be located on opposite sides of the pre-frontal cortex.
47
Bartlett War of The Ghost provides research support for the existence of schemas
A03: Cognitive Approach
1. Bartlett had English participants read a Navajo folk tale.
2. Bartlett asked participants to recall the folk tale.
3. Bartlett measured how many details they got wrong.
4. Bartlett found that participants changed details to match their own schemas.
48
Real life applications of the fact that schemas distort memory...
A03: Cognitive Approach
The study of memory has applications to real life as it shows that schemas can lead to the distortion of memory.
As a result, cognitive interviews have been developed, which has decreased the inaccuracy of eyewitness memory.
This means that convictions cannot solely be based on the account of one eyewitness, and thus should lead to a decrease of wrongful convictions.
49
Real life applications of thinking processes causing dysfunctional behaviour...
A03: Cognitive Approach
The cognitive approach influenced psychopathology and has been used to explain how dysfunctional behaviour shown by people can be traced back to thinking processes
Thus, this led to the therapy known as cognitive behavioural therapy which helps patients with OCD and depression.
This is a strength because this means that sufferers of mental health conditions can live their life normally instead of remaining in the hospital.
50
Highly scientific methods
A03: Cognitive Approach
The Cognitive Approach uses highly objective and controlled methods such as controlled laboratory experiments.
This is a strength because they use standardised instructions and procedures that emphasise reliability, objectivity and the minimising of situational variables affecting the results.
As a result, stronger cause and effect relationship can be established meaning that the cognitive approach has a credible scientific basis
51
Soft-deterministic stance
A03: Cognitive Approach
The cognitive approach takes a soft deterministic stance as it recognises that while our cognitive system can only operate within certain limits, we are free to think before responding to a stimulus.
This is contrasts with the behaviourist approach which implies that we are passive responders to our environment and lack free will in our choice of behaviour.
Therefore, the cognitive approach takes a more reasonable ‘interactionist’ (middle-ground) position in the free will-determinism debate and is more in line with our subjective sense of free will as humans.
52
Artificial Tasks
A03: Cognitive Approach
Studies of cognitive psychology tend to use tasks which have little in common with participant’s natural experiences in their daily life.
For example, experiments in memory use artificial test materials such as random word lists, which are meaningless in everyday life, rather than trying to use everyday memory tasks to try to understand the way in which memory is used in everyday life.
Therefore, this means that the studies lack ecological validity as it would be unlikely to generalise findings from these studies to real-life-situations
53
Machine Reductionism
A03: Cognitive Approach
The use of theoretical models is heavily based on computer models to reflect the system of our memory. It uses language such as coding, duration and capacity to reduce each component down into simpler processes.
However, humans are different to computers. We are more complex, experience emotion and have free will.
Therefore, it is unethical to generalise the components of a computer to a human to explain the process of memory
54
Emotional factors may be involved ---> adding onto Machine Reductionism
A03: Cognitive Approach
Moreover, such machine reductionism ignores the influence of human emotion and motivation on the cognitive system, and how this may affect our ability to process information.
For instance, research has found that human memory may be affected by emotional factors, such as the influence of anxiety on eyewitnesses.
The weapon focus effect enhances memory for the weapon itself but impairs memory for other details due to increased attention, often intensified by emotional factors.
55
Inferences need to be made
A03: Cognitive Approach
Cognitive psychologists are only able to infer mental processes from the behaviour they discern in their research.
This means that cognitive psychology suffers from being too abstract and theoretical in nature as we make assumptions and infer about one's behaviour, not knowing for sure.
Therefore, it may be hard to generalise findings from cognitive research to real-world contexts.
56
What are the key assumptions of the biological approach?
A01: Biological Approach
Biological psychologists believe that to fully understand human behaviour, we must research biological processes and structures within the body such as the brain and genes.
57
What are twin studies?
A01: Biological Approach
Twin studies are used to determine the likelihood that certain traits have a genetic basis by comparing the concordance rates between pairs of twins.
If monozygotic twins are found to have higher concordance rates than dizygotic twins this would suggest genetic basis.
This is because identical twins share 100% of each other’s genes, whilst non identical twins share 50% of each other’s genes.
58
What is the difference between a genotype and phenotype?
A01: Biological Approach
A person’s genotype is their actual genetic make up. Genotypes are present within the chromosomes of the individuals and thus cannot be observed.
Phenotype is the way genes are expressed through physical, behavioural and psychological characteristics – they are observable.
59
How can phenotype be influenced by environmental factors?
A01: Biological Approach
A phenotype is influenced by environmental factors – for example identical adult twins usually look slightly different because one has exercised more or one has dyed their hair. – so despite having the same genes (genotype) the way identical twins genes are expressed (the phenotype) is different.
60
So how is human behaviour determined according to biological psychologists?
A01: Biological Approach
Therefore, biological psychologists propose that human behaviour depends upon an interaction between inherited factors from nature and the environment (nurture).
61
Can you fully outline Darwin's Natural Selection Theory?
A01: Biological Approach
Some traits give a certain species a particular advantage, those that have those traits survive, those who don’t die out.
Those who do survive, reproduce and eventually all species will have this certain trait, continuing over generations.
Natural selection affects our genotype and shapes our behaviour by causing us to have certain genes.
Our genes then affect behaviour by controlling processes in the brain
62
Real life applications (2 marks)
A03: Biological Approach
One strength of the biological approach is that it has real life applications as increased understanding of biochemical processes in the brain has led to the development of psychoactive drugs such as SSRIs, which has helped treat serious mental conditions such as OCD.
For example, Soomro et al found that SSRIs are more effective than placebos at treating the symptoms of OCD and reduce the symptoms for up to three months after the treatment. This is a strength because this demonstrates the effectiveness of the use of SSRIs in patients with OCD providing evidence for how it has helped to reduce the anxiety associated with OCD which has thus provided relief for some patients, allowing sufferers of OCD being able to live their life normally instead of remaining in the hospital.
Thus applications of the biological approach has been used in helpful ways.
63
Use of drugs such as SSRIs has had positive implications on the economy
A03: Biological Approach
This has positive implications for the economy because it means patients can return to their homes, saving the NHS money on hospitalisations, reducing the burden on the NHS (with already very long waiting times).
It also allows patients to go back to work and contribute to the economy.
64
Highly Scientific
A03: Biological Approach
One strength of the biological approach is that to investigate the biological basis of the behaviour, the biological approach utilises a wide range of precise and highly scientific methods such as twin studies.
These take place in highly controlled environments so that other researchers can then easily repeat the experiments to check for consistent findings, increasing the validity and reliability of the results.
Therefore, the biological approach uses scientific methods based on reliable and objective data, making it easier to establish a cause-and-effect relationship.
65
Research support for twin studies
A03: Biological Approach
Evidence to support this is that McGuffin et al did research linking the mental disorder, depression, with genetics. They found that the concordance rate of major depressive disorder for monozygotic twins was 46% and for dizygotic twins was 20%.
This shows that there is a heritability factor for major depression. Therefore, meaning that there is a strong genetic component to major depressive disorder, thus providing support for the biological approach.
66
Twin studies never have 100% concordance rates
A03: Biological Approach
Although results of these twin studies do provide evidence of a strong genetic component, as the concordance rate of MZ twins are significantly higher than the DZ twins, the results also highlight the role of environmental factors as the concordance rate is never 100%.
This is a limitation of the biological approach because it does not take into account the role of nurture in determining a behaviour.
67
Interactionist approach may be more suitable for determining behaviours
A03: Biological Approach
Twin studies results highlight the need to take an interactionist approach, which takes both nurture and nature into account.
For example, when explaining behaviours like schizophrenia, the Diathesis-stress model of Schizophrenia suggests that although people may inherit a predisposition to Schizophrenia through genes, some sort of environmental stressor such as family dysfunction is required to develop the disease.
This explains why Schizophrenia happens in the late teens or early adulthood – common times of considerable upheaval and stress in people’s lives - providing support for a combination of nurture and nature in determining schizophrenic behaviour because a combination of genetic factors and environmental factors over time may have led to the development of schizophrenia rather than solely biological factors.
68
Evolutionary explanations of behaviour are limited
A03: Biological Approach
While many human behaviours can be transmitted by both genes and culture, critics argue that many behaviours are purely cultural as they hold no survival or reproductive value, for example homosexuality.
This is a limitation because evolutionary explanations fail to explain behaviour with no survival value, and therefore does not offer a complete explanation of human behaviour.
69
Determinism implies we have no free will --> implications on legal system
A03: Biological Approach
One limitation of the biological approach is that it is deterministic. This is because it suggests that human behaviour is dominated by internal, biological causes in which we have no control over.
Thus the biological approach does not consider individual differences or free will as it does not attempt to explain differences in every individual in more than just biological factors such as upbringing, personality etc.
This has implications for the legal system because offenders are seen as legally and morally responsible for their actions, which they had free will over. For instance, if there was a discovery of a ‘criminal’ gene, which made it more likely for some people to commit crimes than others, this may cause complications for this principle.
70
Reductionist approach allows scientific studies to be carried out.
A03: Biological Approach
Reductionism reduces complex human behaviour all the way down to what the cells in the brain are doing. The use of a reductionist approach to behaviour can be a useful one in allowing scientific study to be carried out.
For example, research into the genetic basis on mental disorders has enabled researchers to identify specific genes believed to be responsible for schizophrenia.
Scientific study requires the isolation of variables making it possible to identify the causes of behaviour, helping us to understand human behaviour in terms of cause-and-effect relationships in the body.
71
What is the role of the unconscious?
--> The mind is split into three parts.
A01: Psychodynamic Approach
The part of the mind that we are aware of and know most about is the conscious.
Underneath the conscious mind is the preconsciousness. This consists of thoughts and ideas that we can become aware of if we try (such as through remembering)
However, most of what drives our human behaviour is our unconscious.
72
What is the structure of our personality?
Fully outline each part and its function.
A01: Psychodynamic Approach
The id is the primitive part of our personality, driving our unconscious behaviour, it demands immediate gratification regardless of circumstance.
The superego is our sense of what is right and wrong. It acts according to the ‘morality principle’ representing the moral standards of their same sex parent and controls the ID with feelings of guilt.
The ego works on the reality principle, which reduces the conflict between the demands of the ID and the superego, so that the ID can be satisfied in a way that is acceptable by society.
73
What are the psychosexual stages?
A01: Psychodynamic Approach
Sexual energy in the body drives development and moves to different areas in the body causing tension or conflict between what the child wants and society desires.
If conflict is not resolved appropriately, it results in fixation.
For example, if oral stage not appropriately addressed it could lead to over-dependence on others.
74
What are ego defence mechanisms?
A01: Psychodynamic Approach
Ego defence mechanisms are the strategies that the ego uses to manage the conflict between the id and superego.
This allows us to alter or forget memories to prevent us from being overwhelmed by traumas or temporary threats.
One example of this is repression, in which a distressing memory is forced out of the conscious mind to be forgotten.
75
What is the Oedipus Complex?
(One example of psychosexual stage: Phallic)
A01: Psychodynamic Approach
The Oedipus complex is a theory of Freud, and occurs during the Phallic stage of psychosexual development.
It involves a boy, aged between 3 and 6, becoming unconsciously sexually attached to his mother, and hostile towards his father (who he views as a rival).
In the young boy, the Oedipus complex or more correctly, conflict, arises because the boy develops unconscious sexual (pleasurable) desires for his mother.
Envy and Jealous are aimed at the father, the object of the mother’s affection and attention. These feelings for the mother and rivalry toward the father lead to fantasies of getting rid of his father and taking his place with the mother.
The hostile feelings towards the father lead to castration anxiety, an irrational fear that the father will castrate (remove his penis) him as punishment.
The resolution of the Oedipus complex typically occurs through the process of identification with the same-sex parent.
Boys identify with their fathers and internalize their values, attitudes, and behaviours, leading to the development of masculine gender identity and the eventual resolution of the complex.
The father becomes a role model rather than a rival. Through this identification with the aggressor, boys acquire their superego and the male sex role.
The boy substitutes his desire for his mother with his desire for other women.
76
What is the Electra Complex?
(Another example of psychosexual stage: Phallic)
A01: Psychodynamic Approach
The Electra complex describes the female version of the Oedipus complex. It involves a girl, aged between 3 and 6, becoming unconsciously sexually attached to her father and increasingly hostile toward her mother.
The Electra complex, while often attributed to Freud, was actually proposed by Freud’s protégé, Carl Jung (Jung & Kerenyi, 1963).
For girls, the Electra complex begins with the belief that she’s already been castrated. She blames her mother for this and experiences penis envy.
For girls to develop their superego and female sex role, they need to identify with the mother.
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What were Freudian Slips?
A01: Psychodynamic Approach
Freud believed that slips of the tongue provided an insight into the unconscious mind as it we reveal what is really on our minds by saying something we didn’t mean to.
This means according to Freud there are no accidents and every behaviour (including slips of the tongue) was significant
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Real life applications ---> Therapies
A03: Psychodynamic Approach
The biggest strength of the psychodynamic approach is that it has provided us with useful therapy called psychoanalysis, still in existence today. This is a strength because it led to the development of a range of techniques used to tap into the unconscious mind such as hypnosis and dream analysis.
For example, we can use talking therapy to access the unconscious thoughts such as the patient’s true feelings against the person’s wishes to help solve unconscious conflicts that are rooted in childhood.
Therefore, Freud’s Theory has useful applications to therapies in real life through the field of psychotherapy.
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Is psychotherapy truly effective?
A03: Psychodynamic Approach
Eysenck conducted a meta-analysis of thousands of psychoanalytic patients and found that 66% of patients recovered from their neurotic disorders when they had psychotherapy, compared to 70% of the control group, casting doubt on its effectiveness at treating neurotic disorders and thus on Freud’s ideas.
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Real life applications ---> Defence Mechanisms
A03: Psychodynamic Approach
Defence mechanisms have useful applications in real life regarding situations such as memory which can be linked to the weapon focus effect.
Defensive mechanisms such as repression, which involve unconsciously forgetting distressing memories could explain why in high-stress situations involving weapons, witnesses may forget crucial details due to the anxiety associated with the presence of the weapon.
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Research support for existence of defence mechanisms.
A03: Psychodynamic Approach
Williams et al had looked at hospital records and found that 38% of the women who suffered sexual abuse in childhood in his sample weren't able to recall the abuse.
The women were even less likely to recall the abuse if they were much younger or when it was done by someone they knew.
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Has actually been proven via scientific methods.
A03: Psychodynamic Approach
While critics point out that the psychoanalytic approach is not scientific and is not testable many of the claims that psychoanalysis made at the time have now been proven via scientific methods.
Fisher conducted a meta-analysis of around 2,500 studies of the effectiveness of psychoanalytic therapy and found evidence to support the role of the unconscious and the existence of defence mechanisms such as repression, denial and displacement, concluding that experimental studies of psychoanalysis compared well with the studies relevant to any other area of psychology.
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Unscientific & cannot be falsified.
A03: Psychodynamic Approach
The greatest criticism of the psychodynamic approach is that it is unscientific in its analysis of human behavior. Many of the concepts central to Freud’s theories are subjective and as such, difficult to test scientifically.
For example, some may raise the question that can psychologists scientifically study concepts like the unconscious mind?
In this respect, it could be argued that the psychodynamic perspective is unfalsifiable as its theories cannot be empirically investigated, thus limiting the validity of his theories as they lack scientific credibility.
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Cultural biases - Eurocentric.
A03: Psychodynamic Approach
Human development is based on resolution of conflict in a two-parent household according to Freud’s theory. However, not everyone lives in a two-parent household, there are single parent families without dysfunctional children, thus Freud’s theory is outdated as it fails to account for this.
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Psychic Determinism
A03: Psychodynamic Approach
Psychic determinism is a limitation because it suggests that we do not have free will.
This is a limitation because it would imply that our behaviour is driven by unconscious conflicts rooted in childhood, which govern our choices in adulthood, undermining the theory as it fails to recognise free will in choosing our behaviours.
This has implications for the legal system because offenders are seen as legally and morally responsible for their actions, which they had free will over.
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Androcentric and Alpha Biased
A03: Psychodynamic Approach
One limitation of the approach is that it is very androcentric and alpha biased.
This is a limitation because it sees males as the central figure, so development is only seen in comparison to male development. For example, in the Electra Complex, the female sex is seen as desiring male genitalia while a man already has one. Concepts such as 'penis envy' suggest females to be of the 'lesser' sex as they envy superiority that only males allegedly possess.
This is a weakness because not only does he belittle nearly half of the population, but it also cannot be applied well to females and thus his ideas lack population validity
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What is the key assumption of humanistic psychology?
A01: Humanistic Psychology
Humanistic psychologists regard personal growth as an essential part of what it is to be human. Self-actualisation is when an individual realises their fullest potential and what their purpose in life is, humanistic psychologists believe that everyone is striving towards achieving self-actualisation.
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What is holism?
A01: Humanistic Psychology
Opposite of reductionism; It argues that behaviour cannot be understood in terms of the components that make them up, rather psychologists should study the whole person to gain an understanding of all the factors that might influence behaviour.
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What is free will?
A01: Humanistic Psychology
Humanistic theories emphasise that people have control over their own destiny. While we are subject to many influences such as through society and biology, we as human beings have the personal choice to make a decision.
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How does personal growth occur and how can it be prevented likewise?
Use keywords: Self-actualisation, Congruence, Incongruence, Ideal Self, Self-Concept, Dysfunction.
A01: Humanistic Psychology
Everyone can achieve their goals, wishes and desires in life through self-actualisation.
Rogers argues that for personal growth to occur the self and ideal self must be in congruence. The self-concept is our understanding of ourselves and who we imagine ourselves to be. When a person’s ideal self is in line with their self-concept, a state of congruence exists.
However, if an individual believes that there is something in the way of their growth, they can become dysfunctional - creating a state of incongruence.
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Why do we face issues as adults according to Rogers in terms of conditions of worth?
A01: Humanistic Psychology
Rogers argues that many of the issues we face as adults are rooted in childhood e.g., worthlessness.
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What is conditional positive regard and what can it lead to?
A01: Humanistic Psychology
Some suffer from lack of unconditional positive regard from parents (e.g., we love you no matter what).
This is when parents will solely use conditional positive regard on their children (if you do this___ I will love you).
This leads to the child developing an ideal self that is unattainably perfect or not reflective of their true genuine desires and values.
As a result, the child’s ideal self is not in congruence with their self-concept, and this leads to dysfunction.
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What is unconditional positive regard and what can it lead to?
A01: Humanistic Psychology
However, children who have received unconditional positive regard would become fully functioning.
This is because love without conditions or expectations led to the child being more likely to develop a positive and realistic self-image, meaning they are more likely to to trust their own judgement and can experience positivity by living in the moment without criticising themselves.
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What are Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs?
A01: Humanistic Psychology
Maslow outlines a sequence of human needs in the form of a pyramid.
1. Physiological needs - Food/Water
2. Safety and security - Safe place (home)
3. Love and belonging - healthy relationships
4. Self-esteem - feeling confident about oneself
5. Self-actualization - growth needs, full potential
He argued that certain foundational needs must be met before an individual can achieve self-actualisation.
| Acronym: Papa Said Look Starry Skies
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What are deficiency means?
A01: Humanistic Psychology
The first four stages are deficiency means: something important is missing in our lives if we do not meet these needs.
Basic needs must be satisfied before higher psychological needs can be achieved.
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Not reductionist
A03: Humanistic Psychology
Humanistic psychologists reject any attempt to break up behaviour and experience into smaller components.
They take a holistic stance- the idea that subjective experience can only be understood by considering the whole person (their relationships, past present and future, etc.)
This is a strength because the humanistic approach may have more external validity than its alternatives by considering meaningful human behaviour within its real-life context.
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Real life applications
A03: Humanistic Psychology
Maslow's hierarchy is closely associated with economic development.
Research by Hagerty has revealed that countries in the early phases of economic development primarily prioritize lower-level needs within the hierarchy, such as physiological needs due to limited access to food.
It is only in the more advanced stages of economic development that self-actualization and self-esteem needs assume greater significance, underscoring the concept that higher-level needs can only be addressed once individuals have secured their most fundamental requirements.
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Why does this understanding have positive economic implications?
A03: Humanistic Psychology
This has significant implications for understanding motivation in the workplace.
When an individual's psychological needs are met, it tends to enhance their motivation, subsequently contributing to the overall positive economic development of countries.
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Research support for conditions of worth leading to dysfunction.
A03: Humanistic Psychology
Research into adolescents shows evidence consistent with Roger’s views.
Harter et al found that teenagers who feel that they must fulfil certain conditions (conditional positive regard) to please their parents often end up not liking themselves.
They found that those who created a ‘fake self’ were more likely to develop depression and lose touch with their own true self.
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Positive Approach
A03: Humanistic Psychology
Humanistic psychologists have been praised for ‘bringing the person back into psychology’ and promoting a positive image of the human condition.
Humanistic psychology, however, offers a refreshing and optimistic alternative to deterministic theories like Freuds; it sees all people as basically good and free to work towards the achievement of their potential through self-actualisation and emphasises our free will and control over our own lives.
This is much less restrictive than other approaches that assume we are controlled by forces in our environment and that there is nothing we can do.
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The humanistic approach is unrealistic and too positive
A03: Humanistic Psychology
It represents an overly idealised and unrealistic view of human nature as not everyone wants to grow as an individual and not all problems arise from blocked self-actualisation.
Critics argue that people are not as inherently good as suggested and do not recognise people’s capacity for pessimistic behaviour.
For example, some people are just grown up in environments such as in poverty and crime where it may be extremely difficult if not impossible to reach a full positive view of themselves and everyone around them. Therefore, the humanistic approach views human nature through rose-tinted lens.
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Cultural Bias
A03: Humanistic Psychology
Many ideas and concepts integral to humanism such as personal growth and Maslow's hierarchy of needs are more linked with individualist cultures in the Western world such as the US.
Collectivist cultures such as Japan stress community, interdependence and the needs of the group and thus will not identify very easily with the ideals and values in Humanism.
Therefore, this approach is low in ecological validity because this approach does not apply to other collectivist cultures in the real-world setting as it is a product of the western cultural context within which it was developed.
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Untestable concepts
A03: Humanistic Psychology
Rogers advocated the use of non-experimental research methods. Other unfalsifiable concepts such as free will and perceived self are difficult to test in an objective way as they rely on subjective reports.
This means that most evidence used to support this approach lacks empirical evidence and is not operationalised meaning they are not defined in measurable terms to see how IV affects the DV.
It therefore fails to establish a cause-and-effect relationship between variables and thus makes it challenging to test the validity of humanistic theories.
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Vagueness of concepts
A03: Humanistic Psychology
Uses a number of vague ideas which are abstract. For example, in Maslow's hierarchy of needs, it raises questions as to how much of each level does one need to move onto the next. It also assumes that if people do not fulfil their basic needs level they cannot self-actualise, however this is not always the case.
This is exemplified by Nelson Mandela who while imprisoned for 27 years under harsh conditions, exhibited resilience and maintained his principles, and advocated for justice and equality.
His ability to remain true to his values and lead his nation after his release exemplifies self-actualization despite lacking his basic needs.
Thus humanistic research may lack ecological validity as it fails to explain real life situations such as that of Mandela's.
