Forensic Psychology: Paper 3 Flashcards

Question

Mixed results for effectiveness of bottom-up approach A03: Bottom-Up Approach

Answer 1

Richard Kocsis et al (2002) found that chemistry students produced a more accurate offender profile on a solved murder case than experienced senior detectives. This is a limitation because despite its many successes as an approach there is doubt cast here over if it is a reliable approach.

Answer 2

This is because it takes longer to use methods such as investigative psychology and geographical profiling when attempting to catch offenders Thus, making it a weakness because it is not as useful as police are under pressure to close cases quickly and therefore may have less of a widespread use

Answer 3

These peoples behaviour would not match what would be expected by intuition based on experience or by considering what is statistically probable behaviour based on previously solved cases of offenders who have actually been caught.

Answer 4

Both methods of offender profiling can be criticised for being socially sensitive & a hinderance to police investigations Many argue that there's a danger that too much effort may be put into building offender profiles at the expense of other police resources that may be crucial in an investigation. There may also be instances where profiles have been inaccurate & led to miscarriages of justice Although there are benefits to offender profiling, many argue that it shouldn't be overly relied upon - it should complement an investigation rather than lead it

Answer 5

~ A strength of the bottom-up approach is that its been used successfully to catch offenders ~ Canter used his approach to provide an accurate offender profile for the 'railway rapist' (John Duffy) who sexually assaulted & murdered women near railways in London ~ The crime locations & offender's behaviour were consistent across the crimes - they all occurred near railways & the victims were treated similarly and was able to find a link between the rapes and murders that occurred. ~ This confirms that the bottom-up approach to offender profiling has useful applications in fighting crime

Answer 6

* Lombroso’s (1876) theory of Criminology suggests that criminality is inherited and that someone “born criminal” could be identified by the way they look. * He suggested that there was a distinct biological class of people that were prone to criminality. These people exhibited ‘atavistic’ (primitive) features that resembled our ancestors such as large jaws or very small ears. Lombroso argued that criminals were not to blame for their criminal activities as their behaviour was determined by their physiology.

Answer 7

* Lombroso claimed that criminal types were distinguishable from the general population because they looked different. For example, he believed that the features of the thief included: expressive face, manual dexterity, and small, wandering eyes.

Answer 8

* In his study where he examined the skulls of 383 dead Italian criminals and 3839 living ones, he found 40% of them had atavistic characteristics, providing empirical evidence that atavistic form was associated with criminality.

Answer 9

Despite such criticism he has been hailed the 'father of modern criminology'. He is credited with shifting the emphasis in crime research away from a moralistic and religious perspective (prior crime was attributed to spirits and the devils influence), towards a more scientific and credible realm and he heralded the way for criminal profiling. In this way he made a major contribution to the science of criminology.

Answer 10

Lombroso's theory of criminality is an example of biological determinism, arguing criminals are not to blame for their activities as their behaviour was determined by their physiology. By rejecting the notion of free will in favour of biological determinism, this has implications for the legal system as it suggests that causes outside the criminals control could be considered in the justice system, helping support arguments for a less severe punishment. Thus led to renowned changes that have revolutionised the legal system.

Answer 11

Although the theory of atavistic form has been rejected, we still try to identify criminal types. For example, Eysenck's theory looks at personality types and criminality. In addition, research into genetic causes of criminality suggests that some people have an innate disposition to commit crimes. So, Lombroso's later ideas, about an interaction between biological factors and our environment, applies to some more current theories.

Answer 12

In today's time his methods and conclusions would be regarded as unscientific. He merely measured the features of criminals and had no control group. Without a comparison with non-criminal controls, it is difficult to draw conclusions and state that a feature is distinguishing, extra nipples and large ears may equally be characteristics of non-criminals too.

Answer 13

Goring (1913) conducted a comparison between 3000 criminals and 3000 non-criminals and concluded that there was no evidence that offenders are a distinct group with unusual facial and cranial characteristics. This challenges Lombroso's theory that criminals have distinct physical characteristics demonstrating that Lombroso's research lacks reliability.

Answer 14

There is an issue with cause and effect between physical characteristics and criminality, as a relationship between the two variables does not necessarily mean one is causing the other. Facial differences may be caused by other factors such as poor diet or poverty and may not be a result of delayed evolutionary development. Therefore, his view on criminal behaviour is a form of biological reductionism and he should have taken a more holistic view, focusing also on environmental factors to make his research more valid.

Answer 15

This theory has ethical implications. This is a limitation because if we can identify criminals based on their appearance that may imply, we should lock them up prior to them committing a crime. Whether he intended this to be the case or not is up for debate; though there is a little doubt, it is an uncomfortable and controversial aspect of his legacy which continues to overshadow criminology.

Answer 16

Additionally, Lombroso is biased in terms of scientific racism. He identified characteristics like curly hair and dark skin as typical characteristics of a criminal. These characteristics are more likely to be found in African people. This means that his ideas may have reflected the view of people in society at the time and may not be an accurate explanation of offender behaviour.

Answer 17

The theory is gender biased, as Lombroso believed women were less evolved than men. He didn't study women directly, but believed they are passive, maternal and low in intelligence, thus unlikely to become criminals. He also believed women that were criminals had 'masculine' traits, which would be fine in men but made women 'monsters.' These androcentric views were fairly typical in the 19th century and were not based on empirical evidence.

Answer 18

According to Eysenck, our personality is innate and has a biological basis. There is a personality type known as the criminal personality. Individuals with a criminal personality will score highly on measures of extraversion, neuroticism, and psychoticism.

Answer 19

Extraverts are outgoing due to having a chronically under-aroused nervous system. This means that they require more environmental stimulation to fuel their excitement. Extraverts are thus harder to condition and socialise and fail to learn from their mistakes. Thus, this can be linked to criminality as they engage in dangerous activities in order to be stimulated.

Answer 20

Neuroticism measures how strongly your nervous system reacts to aversive stimuli. Highly neurotic people have stronger responses in situations of threat, leading to them being unstable and having more extreme emotional changes. This can be linked to criminality because neurotics are unstable and therefore prone to over-react to situations of threat which could explain some criminal activity.

Answer 21

Highly psychotic people are aggressive, cold, antisocial, and egocentric, which can be linked to criminality because criminals tend to be aggressive and lack empathy. These people are seen as difficult to condition (train) and cold and unfeeling, and it is these traits which may explain their criminality.

Answer 22

The criminal personality type is highly Extravert, Neurotic and Psychotic.

Answer 23

Dunlop assessed a sample of students and friends and found that both extraversion, psychoticism and lie scales were good predictors of delinquency (minor offences e.g. theft). Therefore, this gives support and validity to Eysenck's claims of a link between personality traits such as extraversion and psychoticism and criminal behaviour.

Answer 24

However, these findings should be treated with caution as the sample was students with crimes limited to minor offences, restricting how far this research can support personality as an explanation of all criminal behaviour such as more serious offences like murder for example.

Answer 25

Farrington et al.'s (1982) review of studies showed offenders scored high on psychoticism but not on extraversion or neuroticism. There is also little evidence of consistent differences in EEGs between extraverts and introverts. This casts doubt on the physiological basis of Eysenck's theory.

Answer 26

Bartol and Holanchock (1979) studied Hispanic and African American offenders in a New York maximum security prison, dividing them into six groups based on criminal history and offence. All six groups were less extravert than a non-criminal control group. Bartol and Holanchock suggested this was because the sample was a different cultural group from that investigated by Eysenck. Therefore, this research appears to lack population validity and questions the generalisability of the criminal personality.

Answer 27

Eysenck is criticised for biological determinism as he suggests that criminal personality has a biological basis, suggests that an individual does not have free will or choice over how they act. For example, this implies that extraverts cannot control their desire for stimulation because of the type of nervous system they inherited and thus are predisposed to committing dangerous criminal activities.

Answer 28

This explanation has implications on the legal system (which operates on men's rea meaning that people have a free choice to perform their actions) because if adopted it would raise questions as to whether criminals should be held responsible for their actions because the biological approach suggests that they had no free will or choice in committing their crimes as their personality has made them biologically predisposed to becoming a criminal.

Answer 29

More modern personality theorists like Digman suggest that Eysneck is too simplistic. Digman's 5 factor model includes other important dimensions of personality like conscientiousness and agreeableness, those may be more important in criminality, as not all NE personality types become criminals.

Answer 30

A weakness is that there is conflicting evidence by Coleta van Dam that suggests this is a reductionist explanation. They found that only a small number of male offenders in juvenile detention centres scored highly on all 3 of Eysenck's personality traits. This suggests that personality is not the only factor in explaining criminality and that other factors must contribute to the offending behaviour in Van Dam's study such as amygdala activity and social influences such as poverty, unemployment need considering.

Answer 31

McGurk and McDougall gave the Eysenck personality questionnaire to 100 convicted inmates and 100 trade based students e.g. bricklaying and those aged 17-20. The results showed a high number of people with extravert, neurotic and psychotic personality types in the delinquent group. Social class was also controlled for --> extraneous variables eliminated.

Answer 32

One way of investigating a genetic explanation of offending behaviour is to use twin studies in which concordance rates are compared between MZ (identical) and DZ (non-identical) twins in relation to criminality i.e. if one twin has committed a crime how likely is it that the other twin has also committed a crime? If the concordance rates for criminal behaviour is higher among MZ twins than DZ twins we can suggest that criminal behaviour is genetically inherited.

Answer 33

Brunner studied a genetic abnormality commonly known as the ‘warrior gene’ as it is associated with excessively violent and aggressive behaviour, which may lead to crime. This mutation/abnormality on the X chromosome leads to increased levels of MAOA. As MAOA removes the neurotransmitters serotonin, dopamine, and noradrenaline, this leads to lower levels of these neurotransmitters, which can then lead to behavioural problems and thus criminal behaviour. Therefore these candidate genes could mean someone is more biologically predisposed to committing criminal behaviours.

Answer 34

✩ Research has found abnormalities in some parts of the brain in violent criminals.

Answer 35

The prefrontal cortex is involved in regulating emotion and controlling moral behaviour in general Raine citied 71 brain imaging studies showing that murders, psychopaths and violent individuals have reduced functioning in the prefrontal cortex. This is associated with impulsiveness and loss of control and thus reduced functioning in the prefrontal cortex is believed to make people more prone to committing violent crime.

Answer 36

Researchers such as Seo suggest that low levels of serotonin may predispose individuals to impulsive aggression and criminal behaviour. This is because low levels of serotonin mean a lack of inhibition by the prefrontal cortex, of impulsive and aggressive urges. Therefore, some criminals may have been predisposed to committing crime because they have inherited low levels of serotonin.

Answer 37

Brunner et al.’s (1993) research has been criticised for using a case study method. Case studies are uniquely specific to the small number of individuals involved and therefore lack representativeness. This matters because it is difficult to apply the results beyond the family in question, since the genetic make-up is unique to them.

Answer 38

Potential benefit of research on neural abnormalities is that it could lead to possible methods of treatment. For example, if low levels of serotonin are related to increased aggressiveness in criminals, then people in prison could be given diets or foods like milk that that would enhance their serotonin levels and hopefully decrease their aggression. This suggests that changes in diet could be used to help some individuals, showing how nurture (environment) can be manipulated to positively impact nature (biological factors outside of people’s control).

Answer 39

One limitation of neural explanations for offending behaviour is that they have been criticised for being oversimplistic. For example, the link between abnormal levels of dopamine and offending behaviour, is centred around violent and aggressive behaviour, which does not explain all types of crime. This suggests that this explanation lacks the complexity necessary to understand why individuals commit crimes such as fraud or drug dealing, which aren't necessarily of violent or aggressive nature.

Answer 40

It is suggested that only some of these candidate genes are expressed due to interacting with the environment. Perhaps a better explanation for offending behaviour is taking a more interactionist approach through the diathesis approach. For example, pre-existing vulnerability for criminality by inheriting candidate genes (the diathesis) and obtaining an aggressive behaviour through environmental stressors such as child neglect resulting in violence and possibility of criminal behaviours.

Answer 41

It is difficult to gain a large sample size of willing violent criminal volunteers especially those who happen to be twins or adopted. This means a result many of these studies measure anti-social behaviour This does not necessarily mean that these participants would actually perform criminal offending behaviour.

Answer 42

Biological explanations of offending behaviour advocate for biological determinism, suggesting that an individual does not have free will or choice in committing criminal behaviour due to circumstances out of their control such as inheriting candidate genes. This has important implications for the justice system as it means judges that understand criminal behaviour is due to biological determinism would consider sentences that focus on treatment rather than a harsh punishment.

Answer 43

Researchers that argue for biological determinist explanations for offending behaviour do need to consider the social sensitivity of their ideas. Genetic theories could be used to justify policies that discriminate against people with certain genes on the basis of reducing violent crime.

Answer 44

Other factors: If criminal behaviour was entirely determined by genetics, the concordance rate would be 100% among identical twins. However, both Christiansen (1977) and Lange (1931) found the concordance rates for criminal behaviour among identical twins to be less than 100%, which demonstrates that other factors (e.g. different experiences and psychological factors) are needed for a complete explanation of criminal behaviour.

Answer 45

For example, Crowe found that adopted children who had a biological parent with a criminal record had a 50% greater risk of having criminal record by the age of 18, whereas adopted children whose mother didn't have a criminal record only had a 5% risk. This demonstrates that there is a strong genetic component in offending behaviour.

Answer 46

An implication of Raine’s research is that brain scans in childhood could be used to identify potentially violent criminals of the future. This policy, if enacted, could potentially reduce crime but is socially sensitive because it could lead to discrimination against people with these brain structures.

Answer 47

Studies linking criminal behaviour with neural factors often use small sample sizes. One reason for this is that the population of serious criminals (e.g. murderers) are hard to gain scientific access to. This effect is compounded by the high costs of brain-scanning tools, such as fMRI, which makes it even more difficult to carry out this research on large numbers of people. Because of these small sample sizes, it may be invalid to generalise the findings from these studies to the wider population.

Answer 48

Kiehl used fMRI to study criminal psychopaths, criminal non-psychopaths and a control group of non criminals while they completed emotional processing tasks. It was found that criminal psychopaths had reduced activity in a range of limbic system areas, suggesting that psychopathic offenders have neurological differences, leading them to experience less emotion that most people feel lower inhibition to violence.

Answer 49

Cognitive distortions are failures of the mind in accurately representing reality. Thinking is irrational, leading to misunderstanding what is true about your own or others behaviour. This misunderstanding of reality leads to behavioural responses that can be criminal in nature.

Answer 50

The two main types of cognitive distortions attributed to criminality are hostile attribution bias and minimalisation.

Answer 51

* Hostile attribution bias is the tendency for offenders to view emotionally ambiguous or nonthreatening situations as hostile and threatening. This is linked to criminal behaviour because criminals who misread non-aggressive cues respond in a violent and hostile way. Research has suggested that this thinking style may have developed in childhood as a result of being a ‘rejected’ or ‘aggressive’ child according to Dodge and Frame.

Answer 52

* Minimalisation is particularly common amongst sex offenders, and is used as a coping mechanism for guilt or regret, where offenders will under-exaggerate the significance of their crimes and the emotional consequences suffered by their victims. This helps the individuals accept the consequences of their own behaviour and means that their negative emotions such as guilt can be reduced.

Answer 53

Kohlberg suggests that through development we pass through three levels of moral reasoning, and as we move up levels, we demonstrate greater moral maturity. Criminal behaviour is more likely in people who do not reach the higher levels of moral reasoning.

Answer 54

Criminals are argued to be stuck at the first pre-conventional level because at this level of morality, they only consider how their actions affect them. For example, in the first stage of the pre-conventional level called 'Punishment Orientation', criminal behaviour occurs if they believe that their behaviour will allow them to avoid punishment as they can get away with committing the crime.

Answer 55

Criminal behaviour is less likely in the conventional level as these individuals consider what is best for society and their personal relationships. People in the post-conventional stage also consider general moral principles and what is fundamentally right or wrong. (e.g. let's protest to change laws that I think are incorrect

Answer 56

Moral reasoning appears to be descriptive not explanatory. The cognitive approach can describe the criminal mind, but it cannot explain why it occurs. This is limitation because cognitive explanations are essentially after the fact theories and although they are useful in predicting recidivism, they do not give an explanation for the reason why offending occurred in the first place.

Answer 57

Cognitive theories may not be able to explain all examples of offending behaviour, and specifically, not all types of crimes. For example, Thornton and Reid found that impulsive crimes appear to be carried out by offenders with no reasoning whatsoever, whilst middle-class financially driven crimes are more frequently carried out by offender who display pre-conventional reasoning.

Answer 58

An improved understanding of cognitive biases and their relationship to specific crimes and criminals have a real-life practical application, particularly in the case of sex offenders. Since such offenders are especially susceptible to using minimalisation to justify their crimes, cognitive therapies such as CBT may specifically tackle the root problem of crime by changing the offender's irrational thinking and result in reduced recidivism rates.

Answer 59

This has positive implications for the economy because this application of psychological research could reduce the cost that offending has on the economy such as through harming victims so that they have to take time off work or pass away and cannot perform their work.

Answer 60

Research support comes from Pollock and Hasmall who found that an astounding 35% of child molesters attempted to justify their crimes as non-malicious and simply being a way of showing their affection, whilst 36% did not accept committing a crime at all as they perceived the child as consenting. This supports the idea that minimilisation may underlie offending behaviour.

Answer 61

Research support comes from Schoenberg and Justye who showed 55 violent offenders images of emotionally ambiguous facial expressions and found when compared to a non aggressive control group the violent prisoners were much more likely to interpret the expressions as angry or hostile. This suggests that misinterpretation of verbal cues is a useful explanation of aggressive impulsive behaviour in susceptible individuals.

Answer 62

Kohlberg's theory is based on the use of hypothetical 'dilemma' tasks. It is likely due to social desirability bias, people are unlikely to respond honestly, or even know how they would act. This means that generalisability to real-life offences is limited.

Answer 63

Hollin and Palmer assessed the level of moral reasoning in offenders compared to non delinquents, all were between 13 to 22 years old. Male offenders showed poorer moral reasoning on 10 out of the 11 questions compared to male non offenders. This suggests that offenders do have developmental moral deficits.

Answer 64

Kohlberg assumed that his theory would apply to women, an example of beta bias. However, when women were tested, they appeared to be less morally developed. As men are significantly, more likely to be offenders, this suggests Kohlberg's ideas are not generalisable. However, rather than inferior, Gilligan believed that women were fundamentally different, proposing Kohlberg's work reflected male reasoning, showing that his theory may have been reflective of views regarding the position of women in the 1930s.

Answer 65

Langdon suggested that intelligence was a better predictor of criminality compared to moral reasoning. Langdon found that those with lower intelligence (IQ) and pre-conventional morals were less likely to turn to crime. This shows that Kohlberg’s theory may not be accurate because according to his theory, those who had pre-conventional morals would turn to crime, but in Langdon’s study they did not. Furthermore, within Kohlberg’s own research (1973) not all of the violent youths had low moral reasoning. Therefore, his theory does not provide a full explanation of offending.

Answer 66

Sutherland suggested in his 'Differential Association Theory' that crime is essentially a learned behaviour and can be explained using the principles of social learning theory where the ‘role models’ are criminal peers.

Answer 67

Through socialisation, we learn the norms and peoples through the people around us such as parents. However, we are all socialised differently because we have a unique set of people around us, this is called differential association. Criminals are thus socialised into learning deviant norms and values as they people they associate with have pro-criminal attitudes.

Answer 68

The scientific emphasis of this theory suggests that it is possible to accurately predict mathematically the likelihood that an individual will become criminal, based on their exposure to pro-criminal and anti-criminal attitudes. This means if exposure to pro-criminal attitudes is greater than their exposure to anti-criminal attitudes, then it is highly likely that the individual will become criminal.

Answer 69

Behaviours are reinforced by the expectations of the people we associate with, they provide approval and disapproval. Criminals will approve of other criminal's behaviour.

Answer 70

Individuals learn the skills and knowledge required to carry out specific crimes from intimate personal groups such as their peer group such as how to pick a lock.

Answer 71

Although Sutherland placed a great scientific emphasis upon his theory, the frequency and intensity of exposure to criminal attitudes is very difficult to objectively and reliably measure. For example, it is not clear what ratio of favourable to unfavourable influences would tip the balance so that a person becomes criminal. This means that any conclusions or predictions drawn about the likelihood that an individual will become criminal is likely to be lacking in validity.

Answer 72

Research support comes from family studies. Osbourne and West found that where there is a father with a criminal conviction, 40% of sons had committed crime by the age 18 compared to 13% of sons of non-criminal fathers. This supports idea that the people you surround yourself with a lot influence your behaviour

Answer 73

It is incorrect to assume that simply because an individual has been exposed to more pro criminal attitudes compared to anti-criminal attitudes, then this does not necessarily mean that they will become criminal. Such a determinist approach may lead to increased crime itself through the realisation of self-fulfilling prophecies

Answer 74

The absence of biological factors from this account is a drawback and a better explanation of offending behaviour may be through an interactionist approach. It may be that people who are biologically predisposed to offending may seek out people with criminal values in a process called 'niche picking'.

Answer 75

Research support for learned attitudes of aggression to crime. Bandura's Bobo Doll Experiment - children who first witnessed aggressive adult model then placed in room with bobo doll showed significantly more imitation of physical and verbal aggression that those who witnessed non-aggressive adult model and those who didn't witness a model. Shows that children will imitate aggressive and non-aggressive behaviour displayed by adults even if models not present.

Answer 76

Sutherland's work was a direct rejection of racist views of born criminals, popular in his time. People used eugenic genetic arguments of criminality to perform forced sterilization on criminals so they couldn't pass on criminal genes.

Answer 77

Differential association theory cannot explain why younger males are far more likely to commit crime than older males, as older males would have had more exposure to pro-criminal opinions or why most crime is committed by males and not females, when females are also socialised within criminal families.

Answer 78

Explains why certain crimes are performed by certain social groups of people e.g. white collar crimes. Different peer groups would have different opinions on what types of crime are acceptable, for example, armed bank robbery is bad but committing fraud or corruption in business deals is okay.

Answer 79

Practical applications to differential association theory include not putting first time offenders in the same prison as experienced criminals who may reinforce pro-criminal attitudes and pass on techniques. Also in attempting to change opinions on criminality within social groups and providing alternative rewards that do not involve having to partake in criminal activity.

Answer 80

A child develops a normal superego by resolving the Oedipus and Electra complex by identifying with the same sex parent and imitating their behaviour however Blackburn suggests that there are 3 types of inadequate superegos that are resulted with criminality if the superego is not developed normally.

Answer 81

The deviant superego means that the child will internalise abnormal moral standards from their criminal parents.

Answer 82

The weak superego is present due to a lack of identification with the same sex parent during the phallic stage, perhaps because they were absent. This leads to the person having little control over anti-social behaviour and is likely to act in a way that gratifies their instinctual id impulses, making them more likely to commit criminal crimes that satisfies their desires such as sexual assault.

Answer 83

Finally, the over-harsh superego craves for punishment due to being accustomed to such a feeling because the child had grown up with over-harsh parents. This links to criminality as it leads a person to commit a crime with a wish to be caught and then the punishment would reduce their feelings of guilt.

Answer 84

Bowbly's attahcment theory suggests that poor quality infant-caregiver relationship results in criminal behaviour Our first relationsihp with our mother acts as an internal working model for future relationships. Children with an insecure attachment style may have difficulty forming relationships, which negatively influences their interactions with people and could lead to a tendency to act impulsively and partake in criminal behaviour

Answer 85

Extreme levels of maternal deprivation can result in affectionless psychopathy, a lack of empathy for others or feelings of guilt for your own actions. Bowlby linked affectionless psychopathy with high levels of delinquency and criminality in the young boys in his 44 thieves study.

Answer 86

Bowlby's work suggests a connection between antisocial behaviour in children and poor parenting, but this cannot be seen as scientific evidence for a poorly developed superego leading to delinquency. Many Freudian concepts like the superego are not directly observable or falsifiable, meaning as an explanation of offending behaviour it cannot be empirically tested so will always be an unscientific explanation

Answer 87

Theories on the link between early childhood experience can be applied to reduce crime. For example, in adoption, care should be taken to not give the child a deviant same sex parent to identify with. This is a strength because Bowlby's ideas have been accepted and now care is taken to reduce maternal deprivation.

Answer 88

Freud suggests that as females do not resolve the Oedipus complex (never obtain a penis) they should have weaker superegos, and less morality. This is an example of alpha bias and is likely due to Freud's own androcentric view of the world, reflective of how men were believed to be superior than women in his society. However, offending data clearly shows, even across cultures, that females are less likely to be offenders than males, a direct counter to Freud's theory.

Answer 89

Evidence for early childhood experience and later criminal behaviour like Bowlby's 44 thieves study is correlational. Cause and effect cannot be established so criminal behaviour may be due to other factors. In fact, there is a range of evidence for alternative explanations for offending behaviour such as social learning processes and genetic origins.

Answer 90

- Goreta (1991) - conducted Freudian-style analysis of10 offenders referred for psychiatric treatment - Disturbances in superego were diagnosed - Each offender experienced unconscious feelings of guilt and need for self-punishment - Explained this as consequence of over-harsh super-ego - They found that the need for punishment manifested itself among the offenders as a desire to commit acts of wrongdoings and offend - Evidence supports the role of psychic conflicts and over-harsh superego in the desire to commit criminal behaviour

Answer 91

There is little evidence to back up this theory, many children grow up without a same-sex parent, and the vast majority do not turn to crime. Although family influence is undeniably a factor in criminality, individuals with delinquent parents or siblings are much more likely to turn to crime. The idea of the over-harsh superego and wanting to be punished does not stand up to scrutiny; most criminals go to great lengths not to be caught and punished! It is also implausible that criminality reflects an unconscious desire for punishment - offenders go to great lengths to conceal their actions to avoid punishment.

Answer 92

The psychodynamic is the only explanation of offending that considers emotional factors. Unlike cognitive theories, it takes into account feelings of anxiety or rejection present in offending behaviour. It also acknowledges the role of innate drives and early childhood experiences in moulding adult personality. Therefore, psychodynamic explanations address multiple factors and consider the influence of childhood experiences on adult behaviour.

Answer 93

This theory utilises psychic determinism, which is a limitation because it suggests individuals have no control over offending behaviour, due to it being caused by their innate drives (id, ego and superego). T his means that individuals have no free will over their actions as to whether they commit a crime or not, which has implications on the legal system (which is based on free will and men’s rea) raising questions as to whether criminals should be punished for their crimes as they appear not to be responsible for their criminal behaviour according to this theory.

Answer 94

There is evidence contradicting the findings of Bowlby’s 44 juvenile thieves' study. For example, Lewis (1959) found that maternal deprivation during childhood was not indicative or a reliable predictor of the likelihood of becoming criminal in the future, nor were maternally deprived children at a significant disadvantage in terms of forming close relationships during adulthood. Therefore, this decreases the validity of Blackburn’s conclusion that inadequate superegos, particularly weak superegos due to absence of a same sex parent, are a reliable predictor of criminality.

Answer 95

- Deterrence (to put off both society and individuals from committing crimes) - Incapacitation (to protect the public from the criminal) - Retribution (following the ‘eye for an eye’ philosophy but ensuring that the punishment is in accordance to the severity and type of crime committed) - Rehabilitation (opportunities for training and treatment further reduce the rates of recidivism through addressing the distal cause of offending).

Answer 96

✩ Deindividuation: Prisons can strip people of their sense of socialised individual identity. This process can lead to the highly aggressive behaviour seen in prison. For example, Zimbardo's Stanford Prison Experiment illustrates how guard uniforms may lead to a loss of individual identity associated with increased aggression as seen when the guards started to become abusive towards their prisoners due to internalising the social role that they had been given. ✩ Institutionalisation is a particular problem because prisoners may adapt to the monotonous and constant rhythm of prison life which impairs the offender’s ability to adjust to normal life beyond the prison ✩ Depression: Prisoners often feel helplessness in a frightening environment. This results in high levels of stress, which explains the high levels of self harm and suicide in prisons.

Answer 97

The emphasis on retribution and the monotony of prison life within Britain has contributed towards some of the highest recidivism rates in Europe e.g. 57% will reoffend within a year after release, according to the Ministry of Justice.

Answer 98

For example, Shirley found that offenders were 43% less likely to reoffend if they receive skill building and training. This can help find employment on release, so prisons can be worthwhile if right care provided, thus providing support for custodial sentencing.

Answer 99

Prison does not affect each individual in the same way. For example, the extent of the effects will depend on the dispositional traits of the convict, the length of their prison sentence, any previous experiences in prisons and the type of prison in which they served previous sentences (e.g. maximum security) and the number/gender of prison officers. This means that custodial sentencing can be more or less effective for certain individuals, and so should not be viewed as a universally effective method of dealing with all types of offending behaviour

Answer 100

The use and favourability of custodial sentencing may be affected by political motives, as suggested by Davies and Raymond (2000). The majority of the public favours custodial sentencing as an appropriate method for dealing with offending behaviour because society typically wants to see the criminal suffer and be remorseful for their actions. This may lead some political parties to focus on toughening up prisons and prison sentences in an attempt to please the public and appear as ‘tough on crime’, arguing that other approaches lacking in severe retribution are 'soft options'.

Answer 101

Moreover, the Prison Reform Trust found that 25% of women and 15% of men reported symptoms indicative of psychosis. This raises ethical issues of the custodial sentencing system as it suggests that prison can trigger psychosis. This also raises further issues about the effectiveness of prisons for the rehabilitation of the vulnerable. Therefore, it seems that prison may not work for habitual re-offenders or those with biological/mental illness predispositions to crime.

Answer 102

Prisons could be a breeding ground for learning about other types of crime. Imprisonment simply reinforces pro criminal attitudes. This can be explained in terms of the differential association theory as inmates will learn specific techniques of offending from other criminals leading to more experienced criminals that are now eager to put into practice what they learned upon release.

Answer 103

For example, research support from Latessa and Lowenkamp found that placing low risk recidivism offenders with high-risk recidivism offenders made it more likely for the low-riskders to be reconvicted. This contradicts the aims of custodial sentencing as individuals are learning new techniques for crime in prison.

Answer 104

According to behaviourist principles, punishment is most effective when applied immediately, a condition not met in the case of custodial sentences. Consequently, offenders may learn to view the sentence as a consequence of being apprehended rather than a deterrent for their actions, suggesting that punishment may not be the most effective approach. Therefore, this negatively reinforces the behaviour of avoiding punishment rather than abstaining from criminal activities, leading to a cycle of criminal behaviour, thus custodial sentencing appears to actually lead to an increase in offending rates.

Answer 105

As so many ex-inmates reoffend, prisons may not deter or reform offenders and may only incapacitate people for the time they are in prison. However, as reoffending rates are much higher for short sentences of less than 6 months at 84.9% compared to more than 4 years at 32.2%, it could be argued that short sentences are not long enough to deter or reform.

Answer 106

The cost per prisoner per year in the UK in 2020 is over £42,000 according to the Ministry of Justice in 2021-22. As recidivism rates are so high, from a cost benefit analysis perhaps trying different approaches to protect society from offenders.

Answer 107

Norway, on the other hand, has one of the lowest 4 European recidivism rates but a far greater focus on rehabilitation, as opposed to traditional punishment – taking good care of their prisoners. Perhaps we should focus on rehabilitation rather than a large emphasis on retribution.

Answer 108

However, the main advantage of custodial sentencing is that prisoners are surrounded by opportunities for learning and training. For example, sex offenders may partake in compulsory CBT schemes to reduce the effects of their minimalisation (a type of cognitive distortion) and so reduce the likelihood of recidivism. Violent offender can partake in anger management schemes, whilst others may opt for token economy systems (behaviour modification) or restorative justice in return for a more lenient prison sentence. Therefore, this suggests that prison is useful method of dealing with offending behaviour and different types of offensives which are tailored to prisoners e.g. CBT for criminals with anger issues.

Answer 109

* Behaviour modification in custody largely features token economies, which are systems based upon operant conditioning principles, and mainly reinforcement.

Answer 110

Reinforcement (which can be negative or positive) increases the likelihood of a desired behaviour being repeated. In the context of custody, this means that selected socially-desirable behaviours are more likely to be repeated by offenders.

Answer 111

* Every time a desired target behaviour is carried out by an offender such as helping out in the canteen, they are systematically rewarded with a token. This acts as a secondary reinforcer because its value is derived from being able to be swapped for a ‘privilege’ or reward, which is known as a primary reinforcer. Rewards may include exercise time outside of the prison grounds or access to a favourite TV show. Therefore, through positive reinforcement the offender is more likely to repeat these desirable behaviours because they are motivated by achieving the same reward each time.

Answer 112

Bad behaviour such as fighting with other prisoners may led to tokens being taken away, acting as a negative punishment, reducing the likelihood that the offender repeats this undesirable action.

Answer 113

A key strength of behaviour modification systems is that they are flexible (can change according to the aims of each institution) and easy to implement. For example, token economy systems used in psychiatric hospitals may be very different from those used in maximum-security prisons, and so as long as the implementation of the rules and tokens is consistent a significant improvement in prisoner conduct is likely to be seen.

Answer 114

Hobbs and Holt developed a token economy system for young offenders at a residential school for delinquent males. There was a significant increase in appropriate behaviour in the students taking part in the token economy programme with no improvement in the control group, suggesting that token economy is effective.

Answer 115

Research on behaviour modification is based on correlation and therefore we cannot establish a cause-and-effect relationship. This is because we can't be sure the improvement in the boys’ behaviour was directly a result of the token economy programme, for example it could've just been improvement due to the amount of time the boys had spent in the institution.

Answer 116

Some have questioned the ethical basis of the use of token economy systems. Behaviour modification is manipulative and dehumanising. Participation in the schemes is often obligatory for all offenders as opposed to optional. Withdrawal of "privileges" such as contact with loved ones or exercise, which is viewed by many as a basic human right, occurs when prisoners refuse to obey the token economy system. This is viewed by many as ethically questionable and thus, it is important to conduct a cost-benefit analysis to assess the utility of token economy systems.

Answer 117

In comparison to anger management, behaviour modification can be seen as only treating the proximal cause of offending, whereas anger management can address the distal (main/direct) cause of offending. For example, behaviour modification only temporarily improves the behaviour of offenders, as long as they are motivated by rewards and these rewards are given immediately after the displayed behaviour (in order to avoid a sense of delayed gratification). Therefore, behaviour management may be a short-term solution to offending behaviour

Answer 118

Token economy is limited in that it can only be used effectively in the controlled setting of a prison. It has no long-term effects in reducing recidivism as it cannot be used outside of controlled envrionments and regulated.

Answer 119

Token economy is easy to set up within a prison, not needing highly trained specialists. This means it can be an effective way of dealing with offending behaviour within the prison environment improving conditions for staff and prisoners.

Answer 120

Creating individualised behaviour modification programmes may be extremely difficult. This is due to the large number of prisoners that are in prison, and also the limited number of staff. The practical restraints would mean it could be hard to ensure that rewards are tailored to every single prisoner.

Answer 121

Cohen (1971) found that a group of offenders who were reinforced with token economy – 3 years later, rates of recidivism went back to reflecting national statistics. Therefore the long-term effects of token economy can be questioned.

Answer 122

Anger management programmes assume that aggressive emotional responses are cognitive processes and can be controlled with a form of cognitive behavioural therapy. This provides techniques offenders can use in future stressful situations. There are three stages involved in anger management, whereby the aim is to increase the offender’s self-awareness of their anger and to also increase their self-efficacy in dealing with this anger.

Answer 123

Offenders learn how to assess their own thoughts for triggers of irrational aggressive emotion to help them understand and predict why and when they are likely to become angry. Examples from their lives are used and reinterpreted.

Answer 124

Skills acquisition is when the therapist teaches the offender techniques which can be used to manage their anger and prevent them from spiralling out of control. These can include relaxation techniques such as breathing techniques. This is a form of direct learning, where the therapist demonstrates the techniques, and the offender copies them.

Answer 125

During application practice, the offender applies the skills learnt above to a real-life situation which would normally trigger anger e.g. during a role play. Their behaviour, if the techniques are successfully implemented, is then positively reinforced by the therapist.

Answer 126

Ireland tested a group-based anger management programme. Self report questionnaires were completed before and after the intervention, and behavioural checklist reports from prison staff. 48% of the experimental group showed improvement on both measures, with biggest improvements in the most aggressive offenders

Answer 127

This tackles causes of offending unlike behaviour modification. Rather than focusing on superficial surface behaviour, it attempts to address the thought processes that underlie offending behaviour. Experience of treatment programmes may give offenders new insight into the cause of their criminality enabling them to self-discover ways of managing themselves outside of the prison setting - potentially hlping prisoners retain employment and relationships

Answer 128

Anger management therapies may be guilty of making the incorrect assumption that violent offences are caused by an inability to control anger. In fact, there may be very few or no differences between violent and non-violent offenders in terms of their anger, which draws questions over the validity of the use of anger management for the majority of violent offenders.

Answer 129

It could be the case that such use could be exploited by offenders in return for rewards or a more lenient prison sentence.

Answer 130

It is expensive to run as they require highly trained specialists who can deal with violent offenders. This is a limitation as prisons don't have the resources for this and thus may be hard to implement everywhere for practical use.

Answer 131

Moreover, the success of AM is also dependent on the commitment of those who participate, so this may be a problem in severe cases where prisoners are uncooperative and apathetic due to their anger.

Answer 132

A key strength of anger management is the idea that it incorporates behavioural theories and skills from a variety of different psychological approaches. For example, cognitive preparation focuses on the cognitive basis of aggression, whilst application practice focuses on the behaviourist principles of operant conditioning and positive reinforcement. This is a strength because it suggests that anger management recognises the variety of different triggers and bases of aggressive behaviour (and so is not an over-simplification!)

Answer 133

There appears to be evidence to support the use of anger management as a method of modifying criminal behaviour. For example, Taylor and Novaco looked at 6 meta-analyses of AM reporting 75% improvement rates.

Answer 134

Howells et al (2005) studied anger levels in Australian offenders before and after an anger management program. Although the offenders receiving anger management therapy demonstrated reduced anger levels after therapy compared to a control group who did not receive anger management, the difference was not statistically significant. This suggests that anger management programs do not significantly reduce anger levels and so are unlikely to prevent recidivism.

Answer 135

Restorative justice programmes is an attempt to rehabilitate the offender by getting them to cognitively understand the effect their crime has had on the victim and on society. This could be by direct reconciliation with the victim or in paying back the victim or wider society. This process 'restores' what the offender harmed.

Answer 136

Victim and offender take part in a meeting supervised by a trained mediator. This meeting is collaborative, and the victim is given the opportunity to explain to the criminal the harm caused to them. The offender is then encouraged to take responsibility.

Answer 137

The offender demonstrates acceptance of responsibility in some way by repaying, this could be cash repayment, or it could be in the form of community service.

Answer 138

There are alternative ways to dealing with offending behaviour, these are not mutually exclusive and seem to be effective in reducing offending behaviour. {Mention evidence for alternative methods} Perhaps all could be used in a holistic combined approach if all are somewhat effective in reducing criminal behaviour,

Answer 139

Restorative Justice shares a similar strength with behaviour modification/token economy systems, in that both are flexible and easy to implement. RJ can be modified for prisons, psychiatric institutions and schools, according to the specific problems faced in these organisations. The increasing use of RJ may encourage methods of conflict resolution other than violence and aggression because the offender is made aware of the consequences of their actions first-hand.

Answer 140

There appears to be research support for the effectiveness of restorative justice system. Shapland did a 7-year government funded research project and concluded that every £1 spent on restorative justice would save the criminal justice system £8 in reduced offending, however meeting between the offender and victim would require a mediator (a specialist trained in RJ, which is expensive). There are also high dropout rates as the offender/victim may lose their nerve and withdraw. Therefore, it cannot be that cost effective.

Answer 141

However, there appears to be satisfaction from victims. The UK justice council (2015) report 85% satisfaction from victims after a face-to-face discussion with offenders. Moreover, research from Dignan found that victims were more satisfied with restorative justice than when the crime went through court.

Answer 142

Some argue that restorative justice is a soft option. This is a limitation because alternatives to custodial sentencing tend not to receive much public support, as they are often regarded as soft options. These sentiments tend to be echoed by politicians who are keen to convince the electorate they are "tough on crime

Answer 143

RJ schemes may take a naïve approach to dealing with offending behaviour because they assume that the offender and survivor will always show remorse when participating. It's success hinges on the extent to which offenders feel remorse for their actions There is a danger that some offenders may sign up to the scheme to avoid prison or for the promise of a reduced sentence, rather than out of genuine willingness to make amends to the victim. The victim may have an ulterior motive also, eg to seek revenge or retribution of their own. Therefore, RJ may not have positive outcomes if participants of the restroative justice systems do not have good intentions.

Answer 144

Restorative justice programs are voluntary, so there will always be a self-selection bias for participants who are motivated to change their ways. In other words, the kinds of offenders who volunteer for restorative justice programs may be less likely to reoffend anyway. This makes it difficult to say whether restorative justice programs actually cause lower rates of recidivism, or whether they are just correlated.

Answer 145

The voluntary nature of restorative justice programs also means their applications are limited. For example, restorative justice can’t work if either the offender or the victim doesn’t consent to take part. Similarly, if the offender doesn’t take responsibility for their actions, restorative justice isn’t an option. This limits the potential applications of restorative justice.

Forensic Psychology: Paper 3 Flashcards

(169 cards)