Issues and Debates: Paper 3

Question 1

What is Gender Bias?

A01: Gender Bias in Psychology

Answer 1

This means that a person’s views about gender is distorted in some way or presented in a biased way.

This gender bias leads to differential treatment of males and females, based on stereotypes and not real differences.

Question 2

What is the meaning of the WEIRD acronym?

A01: Gender Bias & Cultural Bias in Psychology

Answer 2

Refers to how a majourity of participants in psychological research are from:

Western
Educated
Industralised
Rich
Democratic societies.

Question 3

What is Alpha Bias?

Can you provide an example of a study that has an alpha bias?

A01: Gender Bias in Psychology

Answer 3

Alpha Bias – This refers to theories that exaggerate differences between males and females.

✩ Freud’s theories reflected the cultural he lived in. In the nineteenth century, men were more powerful and educated and thus regarded as superior to women. His theory had thus been centred on the development of men

✩ Freud and many of his followers believed that biological differences between men and women had major consequences for psychological development.

Question 4

Why does Freud’s study also suffer from androcentrism, and how does this exclude women?

A01: Gender Bias in Psychology

Answer 4

✩ His theory suffers from androcentrism as it focuses on the development of men to the detriment of woman’s development.

Women are seen as inferior to men because they realise that they have no penis and become jealous of men’s penises (penis envy) and because they cannot undergo the same Oedipus conflict as boys do (through castration anxiety)

✩ According to the Freudian view, the superego develops from the Oedipus conflict. This implies that, in Freud’s view, women are deemed morally inferior due to a presumed weaker identification with their mothers.

Question 5

What is Beta Bias, and how does this affect views in psychological research?

A01: Gender Bias in Psychology

Answer 5

Beta Bias – This refers to theories that have traditionally ignored or minimised sex differences. These theories often assume that the findings from males can apply equally to females.

✩ The result of beta bias in psychological research is that we end up with a view of human nature that is supposed to apply to men and women alike, but in fact, has a male or androcentric bias.

Question 6

How does this link the theory of universality?

A01: Gender Bias in Psychology

Answer 6

Universality – Beta bias links to the the idea of universality in that there are a range of psychological characteristics of human beings that can be applied to all of us despite differences in experiences and upbringing, in this case regarding gender.

Question 7

Can you provide an example of Beta Bias?

A01: Gender Bias in Psychology

Answer 7

✩ For example, Asch’s (1955) conformity studies involved all male participants, as did many of the other conformity studies (e.g., Perrin & Spencer, 1980) and therefore it was assumed that females would respond in the same way, however there may have been sex differences between boys and girls that could have affected the results of the studies.

Question 8

Research into Gender Bias has helped reduce Gender Bias in the psychological field and society.

A03: Gender Bias in Psychology

Answer 8

Equal opportunity legislation and feminist psychology have performed the valuable functions of reducing institutionalised gender bias and drawing attention to sources of bias and under-researched areas in psychology like childcare, sexual abuse, dual burden working and prostitution.

The prominence of female researchers like Ainsworth and Loftus have also led to increased acknowledgement of women in the psychological field

Question 9

Taking a feminist approach to reduce Gender Bias

A03: Gender Bias in Psychology

Answer 9

Another way to reduce gender bias is to take a feminist approach which attempts to restore the imbalance in both psychological theories and research.

Research from Dweck on whether ‘Math’s is a gift, and how this poses a risk to females’ found that girls who viewed maths as a more natural gift that cannot be controlled performed significantly worse than boys in mathematics throughout their lives.

This had led to interventions being developed that address this factor shrinking this percieved gender difference (an eight-session intervention for junior high school tudents that taught them the idea that intellectual skills can be developed)

Thus rearch into gender bias in psychology has positive applications in creating a more equal and fair society.

Question 10

One limitation is the biased dissemination of research results through academic journals.

A03: Gender Bias in Psychology

Answer 10

This is a limitation because the publishing bias leans towards more positive results.

This means that research that finds gender differences between men and women are more likely to get published than research that doesn’t, thus exaggerating the extent of gender differences between men and woman.

Question 11

One limitation is that gender bias can work against males as well as females, as sometimes alpha bias theories heighten the value of women.

A03: Gender Bias in Psychology

Answer 11

Evidence to support this comes from research that has found that women are more likely to be diagnosed with depression and given treatment than males.

This could be because women are more likely to suffer from depression, or it could also be because the diagnostic system may be biased towards finding depression among women.

There may be an internalised expectation for males to ‘man up’ and ‘pulling themselves together’ which is viewed as a masculine trait, highlighting issues with the psychological diagnostic systems.

Question 12

Psychological research about women’s ability has led to lower self-esteem, when findings may not be universal.

A03: Gender Bias in Psychology

Answer 12

Judgements about an individual women’s ability are made on the basis of average differences between the sexes or biased sex-role stereotypes, and this also had the effect of lowering women’s self-esteem; making them, rather than men, think they have to improve themselves (Tavris, 1993).

Question 13

Issues of gender bias often go unchallenged in psychological research.

A03: Gender Bias in Psychology

Answer 13

For example, Darwin’s established theory of sexual selection suggests that women are selective (choosy) in terms of mate selection. These views have only recently been challenged by DNA evidence suggesting that women are equally as competitive as men when the need arises.

Question 14

Research into gender bias in psychology has social sensitive issues.

A03: Gender Bias in Psychology

Answer 14

Feminists argue that although gender differences are minimal or non-existent, they are used against women to maintain male power and thus sustain prejudices and stereotypes regarding genders.

For example, Kitzinger argues that questions about sex differences aren’t just scientific questions – they’re also political (such as women having the same rights as men). So, gender differences distorted to maintain the status quo of male power. For example, there may be a bias towards rejecting women from attending male-dominant universities such as Imperial College London.

Question 15

Helped reduce the impact of socially sensitive research who may misinterpret research findings.

A03: Gender Bias in Psychology

Answer 15

In reporting research findings, it is crucial to clearly state that the theories, findings and conclusions are specific to the gender represented in the sample.

This transparency helps to minimise the risk of other researchers or the media misinterpreting the results as universally applicable.

Question 16

What is culture bias?

What research shows that there is cultural bias in psychological research?

A01: Cultural Bias

Answer 16

✩ Culture bias occurs when all human behaviour is interpreted from only one cultural viewpoint and this seems to occur frequently as most research is performed on ‘WEIRD’ participants (western, educated, industrialised, rich and democratic)

✩ Research from Smith and Bond provides evidence for cultural bias as they found that 66% of participants in European textbooks on social psychology were American, 32% European, and only 2% from the rest of the world.

Question 17

What do Western psychologists typically assume about their findings?

A01: Cultural Bias

Answer 17

✩ Western psychologists routinely generalise their findings from societies in small sections of the world like this onto people as a whole, but findings of psychological research conducted in one culture may not apply directly to another.

Question 18

What is universality?

A01: Cultural Bias

Answer 18

✩ When a theory is described as universal, it means that it can apply to all people, irrespective of culture.

Question 19

What is cultural relativism, and why can it be used to question some psychological research?

A01: Cultural Bias

Answer 19

✩ Rather, psychologists believe that taking a cultural relativist approach would benefit psychological research greatly.

This means that behaviours and concepts can only be understood correctly from the perspective of their cultural context.

Therefore, any study which draws its sample from only one cultural context (like American college students) and then generalises its findings to all people everywhere can be questioned by psychologists in terms of cultural relativism.

Question 20

What is the difference between etic and emic constructs?

A01: Cultural Bias

Answer 20

✩ An etic construct is a behaviour that is thought to be universal across all cultural groups (i.e.: smiling when happy).

✩ An emic construct is a behaviour that only applies to certain cultural groups.

Question 21

What is an emic approach?

A01: Cultural Bias

Answer 21

An emic approach refers to the investigation of a culture from within the culture itself.

This means that research of European society from a European perspective is emic.

Question 22

What is ethnocentrism?

A01: Cultural Bias

Answer 22

✩ Ethnocentrism is when a researcher takes their own culture as the norm and interprets deviations from this as ‘abnormal’. Ethnocentrism is an often-unintentional lack of awareness that other ways of seeing things can be as valid as one’s own.

Question 23

Can you explain a psychological study that it is ethnocentric?

A01: Cultural Bias

Answer 23

✩ Ainsworth’s Strange Situation is an example of ethnocentric research, as it may not accurately assess child-rearing practises and values in other cultures that may differ from Western individualistic societies like America.

It is believed that the most desirable outcome of the Strange Situation is Secure Attachment and is seen as the ‘healthy attachment type’.

The Strange Situation has been described as an imposed etic, where a technique or theory is developed in one culture and then imposed on another because it fails to take into account that different cultural norms can influence an infants behaviour in the assessment.

For example, German children, on average, demonstrate a higher rate of insecure-avoidant behaviour as German parents and society, value and encourage independent behaviour, therefore explaining why their children reacted differently in the Strange Situation.

Labelling these behaviours as insecure based on a Western standard is ethnocentric.

Question 24

How has research into cultural bias in psychology helped us attempt to achieve universality?

A03: Cultural Bias

Answer 24

+ Regarding culture, one way to achieve universality would be to employ what Berry (1969) described as a derived etic. This is where a series of emic studies take place in local settings, conducted by local researchers using local techniques.

Such studies can build up a picture of human behaviour in a similar way to the ethnographic approach taken by anthropologists. This is the study of different cultures through the use of comparisons, as by making comparisons between cultures we can learn more about a target culture.

Question 25

Has been successfully applied in real life to reduce ethnocentrism. A03: Cultural Bias

Answer 25

One strength of research into cultural bias in psychology is that now travel plays a huge role in psychology now on a professional level as well as personal (conferences). This is a strength because the greater exchange of ideas should reduce ethnocentrism in the future of psychology.

Question 26

Culturally biased research can have significant real-world effects by, for example, amplifying and validating damaging stereotypes. A03: Cultural Bias

Answer 26

The US Army used an IQ test before WWI which was culturally biased toward the dominant white majority. The test showed that African Americans were at the bottom of the IQ scale, and this had a negative effect on the attitudes of Americans toward this group of people, which highlights the negative impact that culturally biased research can have on social groups such as African Americans.

Question 27

Why can taking a reflexive approach in psychological research reduce cultural bias? A03: Cultural Bias

Answer 27

A reflexive approach involves researchers actively reflecting on their beliefs, values and experiences. This self-awareness is crucial for recognising how these personal factors might influence the research process, this can help identify stereotypes that could affect the interpretation of participant behaviour. This approach also aids the adaptation of research methods to ensure that their are culturally relevant and sensitive to the diverse background of participants. By being reflexive, therefore, researchers can reduce cultural biases and enhance the validity of their findings.

Question 28

How can we minimise risk of interpreting research as universal? A03: Cultural Bias

Answer 28

In reporting research findings, it is crucial to clearly state that the theories, findings and conclusions are specific to the culture represented in the sample. This transparency helps to minimise the risk of other researchers or the media misinterpreting the results as universally applicable.

Question 29

Why will cultural bias continue to persist? A03: Cultural Bias

Answer 29

Research is likely to continue over-representing American college students due to the ease and low cost of obtaining them as an opportunity sample.

Question 30

Distinction between individualism and collectivism is blurring. A03: Cultural Bias

Answer 30

Psychologists have often referred to culture in the context of individualism versus collectivism. Individualist cultures (US) value the individual and independence, whereas collectivist cultures (India) value the group interdependence. Critics argue that this is a lazy and simplistic distinction that no longer applies due to globalisation. For example, Takano and Osaka (1999) found that 14 out of 15 studies comparing the US and Japan found no evidence of a distinction between the two types of culture This is a weakness because it could suggest that this form of cultural bias is less of a an issue than it once was

Question 31

Cross-cultural research may be difficult due to the unfamiliarity with the research tradition A03: Cultural Bias

Answer 31

When conducting research in western culture the participants familiarity with the general aims and objectives of scientific research is assumed to be already known. In cultures without historical experience of research such as the Ugyhurs, knowledge of scientific enquiries may not be known which could mean that local populations may be more affected by demand characteristics than western participants. This is a weakness because unfamiliarity with the research tradition threatens the validity of the outcome and limits our understanding of results in other cultures.

Question 32

What is social sensitivity? A01: Ethical Implications of Research Studies and Theory

Answer 32

✩ Sieber and Stanley (1988) used the term social sensitivity to describe studies where there are potential social consequences for the participants, or the group of people represented by the research.

Question 33

Can you give an example of how social groups may be have been used to discriminate against social groups such as US blacks? A01: Ethical Implications of Research Studies and Theory

Answer 33

✩ IQ tests administered to black Americans show that they typically score 15 points below the average white score. When black Americans are given these tests, they presumably complete them willingly and are in no way harmed as individuals. However, when published, findings of this sort seek to reinforce racial stereotypes and are used to discriminate against the black population in the job market etc.

Question 34

What are examples of some groups that may be affected by socially sensitive psychological research? A01: Ethical Implications of Research Studies and Theory

Answer 34

Members of the social group being studied such as racial or ethnic group. For example, early research on IQ was used to discriminate against US Blacks. Friends and relatives of those taking part in the study, particularly in case studies, where individuals may become famous or infamous. Cases that spring to mind would include Genie’s mother. Government bodies may use psychological findings to develop policies or legislation that are not in the interest of the researched groups. For example, funding to programmes that help certain groups could be reduced.

Question 35

The Milgram Experiment is a socially sensitive research that can be linked to several ethical issues. How so? A01: Ethical Implications of Research Studies and Theory

Answer 35

The Milgram Experiment is a socially sensitive research that can be linked to several ethical issues. ✩ Deception – The participants actually believed they were shocking a real person and were unaware the learner was a confederate of Milgram's. ✩ Unable to exercise their right to withdraw - Participants who wanted to withdraw from the study were informed that they had no choice but to go on due to the verbal prods given by the experimenter.

Question 36

What are ways that people are dealing with the ethical implications of socially sensitive research? A01: Ethical Implications of Research Studies and Theory

Answer 36

✩ Researchers should not avoid researching socially sensitive issues. Scientists have a responsibility to society to find useful knowledge. - The media may report findings in a biased or sensationalised way. This means when writing up research for publications, researchers should consider that their findings will be misused and must make the limitations of their research explicit (e.g. ‘the study was only carried out on white middle class American male students’, ‘the study is based on questionnaire data, which may be inaccurate’, etc. - They need to take more care over consent, debriefing, etc., when the issue is sensitive. The researchers should make effective use of briefing and debriefing processes, especially if the use of potentially harmful methods is unavoidable e.g. psychological harm in anxiety studies. - An ethics committee makes the ultimate decision if a study should go ahead. This is reasoned through conducting a cost-benefit analysis; If the costs of the research (e.g. on broader society and participants) outweigh the potential/actual benefits, it is unethical and cannot go through.

Question 37

Not all socially sensitive research is controversial. A03: Ethical Implications of Research Studies and Theory

Answer 37

+ However, not all socially sensitive research is controversial, and some findings can be desirable and beneficial to society. For example, research examining the use of children in eye-witness testimony has found them to be reliable witnesses when questioned in an appropriate manner. In this context, socially sensitive research has resulted in a good working relationship between psychologists and the legal profession.

Question 38

Why is Milgram's Experiment beneficial to wider society? A03: Ethical Implications of Research Studies and Theory

Answer 38

+ However, benefit of the research is that findings of Milgram have helped to reduce prejudice against Germans that had been strong in the post war years, and increased our understanding of human behaviour in showing us that in obedience to authority human behaviour is universal and influenced heavily by situational factors.

Question 39

Measures have been put in place to protect individuals and the wider community from socially sensitive research. A03: Ethical Implications of Research Studies and Theory

Answer 39

+ There is some evidence that socially sensitive research is more likely than non-sensitive research to be rejected by institutional ethical committees. For example, Ceci et al found that the rejection rate was about twice as high which suggests that university ethics departments are mindful of socially sensitive research and appropriate measures are put into place at an institutional level to protect individuals and the wider community from socially sensitive research.

Question 40

Has been important in redressing the balance of psychological research. A03: Ethical Implications of Research Studies and Theory

Answer 40

+ It has become clear that most psychological research is still carried out on white middle-class Americans, so socially sensitive research is important as it has helped to redress the balance of psychological research and make us more aware of other cultures and outlooks ---> can increase our understanding of human behaviour.

Question 41

Socially sensitive research may provide a useful understanding for future psychologists A03: Ethical Implications of Research Studies and Theory

Answer 41

While researchers and ethnic committees are expected to conduct a cost-benefit analysis, the true implications, the cost and benefits of research, are only known for certain once the research has been conducted and may only be after years of publication. Studies may have short-term costs and be controversial at the time of publication, but they may be very valuable to future psychologists.

Question 42

Some areas of psychological research are considered especially socially sensitive such as sexuality and gender. A03: Ethical Implications of Research Studies and Theory

Answer 42

- This extra difficulty and potential for controversy when conducting research in these fields may deter researchers to study these topics. This is problematic as the issues these groups face will remain unstudied objectively. + For this reason, ethic committees need to recognise the importance of research being conducted in socially sensitive areas.

Question 43

Issues with Ethical Guidelines: Wider Harm on Society A03: Ethical Implications of Research Studies and Theory

Answer 43

- Ethical guidelines may protect immediate needs - no measurements for dealing with wider effect in society - need to make sure they can deal with how research findings may shape social policies!. For example, researchers should engage with policymakers to solve the issue of conducting socially sensitive research.

Question 44

Socially sensitive research been used to impose social control A03: Ethical Implications of Research Studies and Theory

Answer 44

- One limitation of socially sensitive research is that it may be used for social control. From the 1920s, US state law led to the compulsory sterilisation of many citizens. These citizens were judged to be ’feeble-minded’ and a drain on society. Psychologists supported this argument claiming they were unfit to breed. Such research can lead to issues of discrimination which is why some psychologists argue against this form of research.

Question 45

What is free will, what does the 'free will' approach argue and what does it believe about 'determinism'? A01: Free Will & Determinism

Answer 45

✩ Free Will suggests that we all have a choice and can control and choose our own behaviour. This approach is all about personal responsibility and plays a central role in Humanist Psychology. ✩ By arguing that humans can make free choices, the free will approach appears to be quite the opposite of the deterministic one. Psychologists who take the free will view suggest that determinism removes freedom and dignity, and devalues human behaviour.

Question 46

What is determinism? A01: Free Will & Determinism

Answer 46

The determinist approach proposes that all behaviour is determined and thus predictable. Some approaches in psychology see the source of this determinism as due to forces in the environment outside of our control such as parental influence, a position known as environmental determinism.

Question 47

What do Behaviourists propose about free will? A01: Free Will & Determinism

Answer 47

✩ Skinner (1971) argued that freedom is an illusion. We may think we have free will but the probability of any behaviour occurring is determined by past experiences and by reinforcement.

Question 48

What is the Skinner Box Experiment? A01: Free Will & Determinism

Answer 48

A hungry rat was placed in a cage. Every time he activated the lever a food pellet fell in the food dispenser (positive reinforcement). The rats quickly learnt to go straight to the lever after a few times of being put in the box This suggests that positive reinforcement increases the likelihood of the behaviour being repeated. This experiment was an example of shaping behaviour, as Skinner reinforced successive approximations to get to the final target behaviour (i.e.: every time the rat pulled the lever it was given food, even before it had figured out the association).

Question 49

What is Soft Determinism and what theory supports this idea? A01: Free Will & Determinism

Answer 49

✩ Soft Determinism represents a middle ground, people do have a choice, but that choice is constrained by external factors. An example of a soft determinism is the cognitive approach ✩ While to a lesser degree Cognitive Psychology supports the idea of free will and choice, cognitive psychologists would argue that in reality, although we do have free will it is constrained by our circumstances and other people.

Question 50

What is Biological Determinism? A01: Free Will & Determinism

Answer 50

Biological (Internal) Determinism - Our biological systems, such as the nervous system, govern our behaviour.

Question 51

Research support for free will being an illusion A03: Free Will & Determinism

Answer 51

+ Skinner, argues that free will is an illusion, insisting that our behaviour is in fact environmentally determined, even if we are unable (or unwilling) to admit it. Recent evidence provides some support for Skinner’s claim. For example, Libet et al. (1983) found that the motor regions of the brain become active before a person registers conscious awareness of a decision, demonstrating that the participants’ decision to move the finger was actually a pre-determined action of the brain. This strongly suggests that many responses are biologically determined and that although we may believe that we have free will, Skinner’s claim that free will is an illusion, may be correct.

Question 52

Real life applications of determinism A03: Free Will & Determinism

Answer 52

Being deterministic is a strength because by assuming that behaviour is determined by factors in the environment, accurate predictions can be made about behaviour in specific situations and is thus useful as it allows us to modify aspects of everyday human behaviour such as in education. For example, operant conditioning techniques are used by teachers for effective classroom management. Therefore, this has useful applications in education as operant conditioning can be used to motivate learners to participate and excel in their studies actively, showing that research into determinism is an effective form of understanding human behaviour.

Question 53

Real life applications of free will A03: Free Will & Determinism

Answer 53

+ Research suggests that people who have an internal locus of control believing that they have a high degree of influence over events and their own behaviour, tend to be more mentally healthy. A study by Roberts et al demonstrated that adolescents with a strong belief in fatalism (belief that their lives were 'decided' by events outside of their control) were at significantly greater risk of developing depression. This suggests that, even if we do not have free will, the fact that we think we do may have a positive impact on mind and behaviour and thus has face validity.

Question 54

Total determinism is unrealistic A03: Free Will & Determinism

Answer 54

Dennett argues that in the physical sciences, it is now accepted that there is no such thing as total determinism. Chaos theory proposes that very small changes in initial conditions can subsequently result in major changes, sometimes called the ‘butterfly effect.’ The conclusion is that causal relationships are probabilistic rather than deterministic. Deterministic explanations tend to oversimplify human behaviour and while they may be appropriate for non-human animals, human behaviour is less rigid and influenced by many factors including cognitive as well as biological impulses. This means that the idea of finding a simple deterministic formula from psychological research is unrealistic.

Question 55

Determinism can have implications on the legal system. A03: Free Will & Determinism

Answer 55

Many psychologists, theorists and legal experts do not favour a deterministic point of view. If behaviour is determined by outside forces, that provides a potential excuse for criminal acts. Therefore, a truly determinist position may be undesirable as it provides an ‘excuse’, allowing people to mitigate their own liability and could lead to vexing legal issues regarding the nature of responsibility and intent (mens rea).

Question 56

Determinism can create socially sensitive issues. A03: Free Will & Determinism

Answer 56

As society currently assumes free will is correct, there are implications if we accept a fully deterministic view. If some people are genetically determined to have higher intelligence, this may affect access to education and employment and if violent offending behaviour can be predicted, this may lead to interventions before a crime is committed.

Question 57

Biological determinism has led to development of SSRIs A03: Free Will & Determinism

Answer 57

+ In fact, the value of such research is that the prediction and control of human behaviour through biological determinism has led to the development of treatment that have benefitted many such as providing psychotherapeutic treatment in controlling and managing schizophrenia. For example, if schizophrenia is caused by elevated levels of dopamine, treatments such as anti-psychotic drugs can be used to decrease levels of dopamine and alleviate the symptoms of schizophrenia. This supports the idea of determinism as it shows that the cause of increased levels of dopamine creates the ‘the disorder schizophrenia.

Question 58

Positive implications for economy due to research into biological determinism. A03: Free Will & Determinism

Answer 58

This has positive implications for the economy because it means patients can return to their homes, saving the NHS money on hospitalisations, reducing the burden on the NHS (with already very long waiting times). It also allows patients to go back to work and contribute to the economy.

Question 59

Determinism in terms of mental disorders makes sense A03: Free Will & Determinism

Answer 59

The experience of mental disorders like schizophrenia where sufferers experience a total loss of control over their thoughts and behaviour casts doubts over the notion of free will as no one would choose to have schizophrenia. This suggests that at least in terms of mental illness, behaviour would appear to be determined.

Question 60

What is 'Nature' and the concept of 'Maturation'? A01: The Nature-Nurture Debate

Answer 60

✩ Nature is the view that all our behaviour is determined by our biology, our genes. In addition, some genetic characteristics only appear later in development because of the process of maturation. Supporters of the nature view have been called ‘nativists.’

Question 61

What are 'Evolutionary Explanations' of human behaviour? Can you link this to a theory put fourth by a psychologist? A01: The Nature-Nurture Debate

Answer 61

✩ Evolutionary explanations of human behaviour exemplify the nature approach of psychology. The main assumption underlying this approach is that any particular behaviour (traits) has evolved because of its survival value. ✩ For example, Bowlby suggested that attachment behaviours are displayed because they ensure the survival of an infant and the perpetuation of the parents’ genes. This survival value is further increased because attachment has implications for later relationship formation which will ultimately promote successful reproduction.

Question 62

What is 'Nurture'? A01: The Nature-Nurture Debate

Answer 62

✩ Nurture is the opposite view that all behaviour is learnt and influenced by external factors such as the environment etc. Supporters of the nurture view are ‘empiricists’ holding the view that all knowledge is gained through experience.

Question 63

Can you link the 'nurture' approach to Schizophrenia? A01: The Nature-Nurture Debate

Answer 63

One assumption of the nurture approach is that there is the double bind hypothesis which explains schizophrenia. They suggest that schizophrenia develops because children receive contradictory messages from their parents. Such conflicting messages about their parents’ feelings may prevent the child from developing an internally consistent construction of reality; which may lead to the development of symptoms of schizophrenia. Thus human behaviour e.g. schizophrenia is determined by forces in the environment such as parental influence.

Question 64

Case studies support the nurture debate A03: The Nature-Nurture Debate

Answer 64

+ A study done by Raine on Donta Page who brutally murdered a woman supports nurture. His upbringing involved being beaten and shaken, as well as being tied up and tortured with electrical cords. This supports the nurture argument as it shows how the environment someone was brought up in can influence their behaviour in later life

Question 65

Twin studies support the nature debate A03: The Nature-Nurture Debate

Answer 65

+ Schizophrenia supports the nature debate as Gottesman and Shield did some research involving monozygotic (MZ) and dizygotic (DZ) twins. They found that the concordance rates were higher in MZ twins as their genes are more similar. This supports the belief that nature is responsible for this psychosis and therefore the behaviour associated with it.

Question 66

Twin studies never have 100% concordance rates A03: The Nature-Nurture Debate

Answer 66

However, the results also highlight the role of environmental factors (nurture) as the concordance rate is never 100%, meaning purely biological factors (nature) cannot determine behaviours.

Question 67

Interactionist approach may be more suitable for determining behaviours A03: The Nature-Nurture Debate

Answer 67

Twin studies results highlight the need to take an interactionist approach, which takes both nurture and nature into account. For example, when explaining behaviours like schizophrenia, the Diathesis-stress model of Schizophrenia suggests that although people may inherit a predisposition to Schizophrenia through genes, some sort of environmental stressor such as family dysfunction is required to develop the disease. This explains why Schizophrenia happens in the late teens or early adulthood – common times of considerable upheaval and stress in people’s lives - providing support for a combination of nurture and nature in determining schizophrenic behaviour because a combination of nature factors such as genetics and nurture factors such as environment over time may have led to the development of schizophrenia rather than solely biological factors.

Question 68

Real life applications of the interactionist approach A03: The Nature-Nurture Debate

Answer 68

Further evidence for the interactionist approach is illustrated by the genetic disorder PKU (phenylketonuria). PKU is caused by the inheritance of two recessive genes, one from each parent. People with PKU are unable to break down the amino acid phenylalanine which builds up in the blood and brain causing mental retardation. However, if the child is diagnosed early, they are placed on a low protein diet for the first 12 years, which helps to avert this potentially lifelong disorder. Therefore, the disorder PKU (nature) is not expressed, because of an altered environment (low protein diet – nurture).

Question 69

Using solely nature approaches in research has led to practical applications e.g. SSRIs A03: The Nature-Nurture Debate

Answer 69

Taking a dichotomous view of behaviour as solely innate or environmental can benefit treatment development. For example, by assuming that OCD had been entirely due to genetic factors affecting serotonin transport, this led to the creation of SSRIs as a treatment.

Question 70

Interactionist approach to these practical applications still are more effective A03: The Nature-Nurture Debate

Answer 70

However, the most effective treatment for OCD often combines SSRIs with Cognitive Behavioural Therapy as noted by Connor et al, indicating the advantages of taking an interactional treatment approach that considers both nature and nurture.

Question 71

Positive implications for society in terms of mental illnesses viewed through 'nurture' approach. A03: The Nature-Nurture Debate

Answer 71

Accepting behaviour as primarily influenced by nature or nurture has significant implications, particularly in mental illness and legal contexts. Viewing mental illness as being due to environmental factors empowers sufferers to actively modify their thought processes, as opposed to a more passive role suggested by a purely biological explanation. This means taking a nurture approach can help people believe that they can overcome their mental illnesses through influences in the environment as seen in the development of family-centred therapy to treat schizophrenia.

Question 72

Negative implications for legal system in terms of criminals and taking a 'nature' approach. A03: The Nature-Nurture Debate

Answer 72

In the legal system, it has been argued that if aggressive behaviour is mainly biologically driven by genetics, it could lead to reduce sentences for individuals with certain genetic markers, under the argument that they are not responsible for their inherited aggressive tendencies. This could have negative implications for society as criminals can get away with crimes much easier and cause harm to society through these biological justifications for their actions.

Question 73

What is Holism, why is it referred to as 'Gestalt psychology' and how does holism study human behaviour? A01: Holism and Reductionism

Answer 73

✩ Holism is often referred to as Gestalt psychology. It argues that behaviour cannot be understood in terms of the components that make them up. This is commonly described as ‘the whole being greater than the sum of its parts.’ ✩ Psychologists study the whole person to gain an understanding of all the factors that might influence behaviour. ✩ Holism uses several levels of explanation such as biological, environment and social factors.

Question 74

Can you explain an example of a holistic approach to defining abnormality? A01: Holism and Reductionism

Answer 74

✩ Jahoda’s 6 elements of Optimal Living are an example of a holistic approach to defining abnormality. Jahoda suggested characteristics of ideal mental health such as integration, which means the ability to cope with stressful situations. Once this criterion of what makes a person normal is established, we can identify how individuals should look when they are psychologically healthy (ideal mental health), then identify those who deviate from this. Therefore, as this definition looks at the whole person and their behaviour, instead of focusing on singular behaviours, this means it is a holistic approach to diagnosing mental health issues.

Question 75

What is reductionism, and how does it propose we can understand human behaviour? A01: Holism and Reductionism

Answer 75

Reductionism is the belief that human behaviour can be explained by breaking it down into smaller component parts. Reductionists say that the best way to understand why we behave as we do is to look closely at the very simplest parts that make up our systems and use the simplest explanations to understand how they work.

Question 76

Can you explain how reductionism applies to biological explanations such as schizophrenia? A01: Holism and Reductionism

Answer 76

✩ In psychology, the term is most appropriately applied to biological explanations (e.g. genetics, neurotransmitters, hormones) of complex human behaviours such as schizophrenia, gender and aggression. For example, biological explanations suggest that schizophrenia is caused by excessive activity of the neurotransmitter dopamine because drugs that block dopamine appear to reduce the positive symptoms of schizophrenia such as delusions and hallucinations.

Question 77

What are practical applications of biological reductionism and how has it helped society? A03: Holism and Reductionism

Answer 77

+ In addition, biological reductionism has led to the development of biological therapies, such as drugs. For example, Soomro et al found that SSRIs are more effective than placebos at treating the symptoms of OCD and reduce the symptoms for up to three months after the treatment. This is a strength because the use of SSRIs in patients with OCD has helped to reduce the anxiety associated with OCD thus providing relief for some patients, allowing sufferers of OCD being able to live their life normally instead of remaining in the hospital

Question 78

Use of drugs such as SSRIs has had positive implications on the economy A03: Holism and Reductionism

Answer 78

This has positive implications for the economy because it means patients can return to their homes, saving the NHS money on hospitalisations, reducing the burden on the NHS (with already very long waiting times). It also allows patients to go back to work and contribute to the economy.

Question 79

Why is taking an interactionist approach more appropriate? A03: Holism and Reductionism

Answer 79

Interactionism in the context of holism and reductionism is perhaps a better explanation of human behaviour as it considers how different levels of explanation combine and interact. For example, the diathesis-stress model explains mental disorders such as schizophrenia as the outcome of predisposition (often genetic) which is triggered by some stressor (often psychological). This model has led to a more multi-disciplinary and holistic approach to treatment (e.g. combining drugs and family therapy) and is associated with lower relapse rates.

Question 80

Why is taking a reductionist approach too simplistic and does not take into account other factors? A03: Holism and Reductionism

Answer 80

The disadvantage is that it can be over simplistic. Humans and their environments are so complex that the reductionist explanation falls short of giving the whole explanation of the behaviour. Thus, it lacks ecological validity. Moreover, explanations that operate on a genetic or neural basis do not take into account the social context within which behaviour occurs. They cannot measure factors like cognition, emotion, and intentionality, all of which may greatly influence behaviour. This means reductionist explanations can only ever form part of an explanation.

Question 81

Why may hidden behaviours be overlooked when taking a reductionist approach? (2 marks) A03: Holism and Reductionism

Answer 81

Lower levels are indeed part of any account of behaviour; but offering accounts at different levels creates problems. First if lower levels are taken in isolation, then the meaning of behaviour may be overlooked. Thus, leading to fundamental errors in understanding. Wolpe, for example, developed systematic desensitisation. Treated one woman for a fear of spiders, only to find that the woman did not improve from this behavioural (low level) method of therapy. He later found out that the woman's husband (whom she was experiencing marital problems with) had been given an insect nickname. The woman had gained a fear not because of conditioning but rather as a way to demonstrate her marital problems unconsciously, a defence mechanism of sorts. These issues raise an important problem for reductionism and that is that the hidden meaning of a behaviour as a sum of multiple components is often overlooked when explaining in terms of reductionism.

Question 82

Taking a purely biological reductionist approach may lead to errors in understanding as it ignore sthe complexity of human behaviour as seen in drug treatments not always succeeding. A03: Holism and Reductionism

Answer 82

For example, to treat conditions like ADHD with drugs in the belief that the condition consists of nothing more than neurochemical imbalances is to mistake the symptoms of the phenomenon for its true cause. Ritalin may reduce these symptoms, but the conditions which gave rise to the ADHD have not been addressed. Whether or not this is true depends on what one thinks of as causation, but since success rates of drug therapy are so highly variable and not consistent, the purely biological understanding seems inadequate because drug treatments are not successful for all patients.

Question 83

Why is the holistic explanation of behaviour unscientific? A03: Holism and Reductionism

Answer 83

The holistic explanation attempts to blend different levels of explanation; holistic theory and approaches attempt to provide a complete and realistic understanding of human behaviour. However, holistic explanations do not establish causation because they do not examine behaviour in terms of operationalised variables that can be manipulated and measured. This means that holistic explanations are view as unscientific.

Question 84

Why may holistic explanations of behaviour be impractical in reality? A03: Holism and Reductionism

Answer 84

Moreover, holistic explanations appear to be impractical as they tend not to lend themselves to rigorous scientific testing and become vague and speculative as they become more complex. For example, if we accept there are many factors contributing to depression, it is difficult to establish which is most influential and which to use as a basis for therapy. Therefore, in practical terms, this complexity suggests that lower-level explanations may be more applicable when seeking solutions for real-world problems, as they allow for a more focused and measurable approach.

Question 85

What does a nomothetic approach look at when understanding human behaviour, what methods do they use and how do they study human behaviour? A01: Idiographic and Nomothetic Approaches to Psychological Investigations

Answer 85

✩ The Nomothetic approach looks at how our behaviours are similar to each other as human beings. ✩ Psychologists who adopt this approach tend to use quantitative methods. ✩ They are mainly concerned with studying what we share with others in terms of establishing laws or generalisations.

Question 86

Can you provide an example of an approach that advocates for a nomothetic approach? A01: Idiographic and Nomothetic Approaches to Psychological Investigations

Answer 86

✩ The behaviourist approach adopts a nomothetic approach as researchers like Skinner studies the response of rats and dogs to develop universal laws of learning. According to Behaviourists, we are only quantitatively different and therefore can both be investigated without involving consciousness. As a result, animals are used in laboratory experiments and the findings are extrapolated to humans to create universal law

Question 87

What is an idiographic approach, what methods are used and what do they want to find out about human behaviours? A01: Idiographic and Nomothetic Approaches to Psychological Investigations

Answer 87

✩ The Idiographic or individual differences approach looks at how our behaviours are different to each other. Psychologists interested in this aspect of experience tend to use qualitative methods and want to discover what makes each of us unique.

Question 88

Can you give an example of research that uses idiographic methods and how does it align with the desires of an idiographic psychologist. A01: Idiographic and Nomothetic Approaches to Psychological Investigations

Answer 88

✩ Carl Rogers, a Humanist psychologist, has developed a method of doing this, a procedure called the “Q-sort”. First the subject is given a large set of cards with a self-evaluative statement written on each one. For example, “I am friendly”. The subject is then asked to sort the cards into piles. One pile to contain statements that are “most like me”, one statements that are “least like me” and one or more piles for statements that are in-between. In a Q-sort the number of cards can be varied as can the number of piles and the type of question (e.g. How I am now? How I used to be?) So, there are a potentially infinite number of variations. This is aligned exactly in the wishes of an idiographic psychologist because in their view there are ultimately as many different personalities as there are people.

Question 89

Why is taking a nomothetic approach scientific, and what can this allow us to do? A03: Idiographic and Nomothetic Approaches to Psychological Investigations

Answer 89

+ The nomothetic approach is seen as far more scientific than the idiographic approach, as it takes an evidence based, objective approach to formulate causal laws. This enables us to make predictions about how people are likely to react in certain circumstances, which can be very useful e.g. Zimbardo’s findings about how prisoners and guards react in a prison environment.

Question 90

Practical applications A03: Idiographic and Nomothetic Approaches to Psychological Investigations

Answer 90

Biological Psychologists take a nomothetic approach when explaining obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) and claim that OCD is caused by higher levels of dopamine and lower levels of serotonin. Drug therapies are developed on the basis of nomothetic research and work by readdressing a biological imbalance. SSRIs are developed as a result used to treat OCD and increase the availability and uptake of serotonin, thus reducing the anxiety associated with OCD which helps to improve the lives of people suffering from this condition, as a result of nomothetic research

Question 91

Use of drugs such as SSRIs has had positive implications on the economy A03: Idiographic and Nomothetic Approaches to Psychological Investigations

Answer 91

This has positive implications for the economy because it means patients can return to their homes, saving the NHS money on hospitalisations, reducing the burden on the NHS (with already very long waiting times). It also allows patients to go back to work and contribute to the economy.

Question 92

Perhaps using an idiographic approach may be better in cases where the 'one-size-fits all' approach may not work. A03: Idiographic and Nomothetic Approaches to Psychological Investigations

Answer 92

+ However, as drug treatments are not successful for all patients, some psychologists argue that alternate treatments (e.g. Cognitive Behavioural Therapy) which are based on an idiographic approach are more suitable for treating individuals with such conditions, as they seek to understand and explain the disorder from a patient’s point of view.

Question 93

Perhaps taking an interactionist approach by taking both an idiographic and nomothetic approach to psychological investigations, rather than separating them is better. A03: Idiographic and Nomothetic Approaches to Psychological Investigations

Answer 93

Millon & Davis suggest that research should start with a nomothetic approach, and once general laws have been established, the focus should switch to an idiographic approach to develop our understanding and theories. Thus, using both approaches together allows us to acquire the best of both worlds. This could in fact have implications for future research in drug therapies which might entail using individualised ‘recipes’ based on a mix of genetic and environmental insights.

Question 94

Moreover, idiographic researchers argue that the nomothetic approach only offers only a superficial grasp of human behaviour. Give an research example providing evidence of why and how nomothetic approaches are limited... A03: Idiographic and Nomothetic Approaches to Psychological Investigations

Answer 94

Some psychologists argue that the nomothetic approach loses sight of the ‘whole person’, due to its fixation on quantitative data and statistical analysis. For instance, proponents of idiographic research contend that Milgram's findings enable predictions only at the group level, not for individual responses. This limitation arises because the nomothetic approach struggles to accurately predict the actions of individuals. Therefore, according to idiographic researchers, a thorough understanding of the individual is crucial for making precise predictions about individual behaviour.

Question 95

When comparing idiographic to nomothetic approaches, why can it be determined that nomothetic approaches are more efficient? A03: Idiographic and Nomothetic Approaches to Psychological Investigations

Answer 95

A limitation of the idiographic approach is that it is very time consuming as it takes a lot of time and money to study individuals in depth. Both approaches are based on large amounts of data; one is in terms of collecting large amounts of data about one person (idiographic) and the other in terms of a number of people (nomothetic). However, the nomothetic approach appears to be relatively speaking quicker because although collecting large amounts of data from a group of people takes time, once a psychological test or questionnaire has been devised, data can be generated and processed quickly. This means that the idiographic approach is less efficient than the nomothetic approach when it comes to data collection.

Question 96

The idiographic approach has its strengths because it uses qualitative methods of data collection. A03: Idiographic and Nomothetic Approaches to Psychological Investigations

Answer 96

This is beneficial as the more in-depth data provides more detailed accounts of experience which can lead to theories being developed/ For example, HM's case study showed that different types of long term memory are associated with different regions of the brain. This has therefore led to further research on both memory and localisation.

Question 97

Theories developed from case studies may struggle to be generalised beyond the individual... A03: Idiographic and Nomothetic Approaches to Psychological Investigations

Answer 97

This reduces the ecological validity of the findings. Moreover, generalisations cannot be made without further examples --> which is hard to do as case studies cannot be replicated. This means that the idiographic approach alone cannot be used to improve the scientific credibility of psychology.