Important Key-terms & Memorisation for Research Methods Flashcards
How do we write a hypothesis?
Hint: There are four steps.
- To write the alternative and null hypotheses for an investigation, you need to identify the key variables in the study. The independent variable is manipulated by the researcher and the dependent variable is the outcome which is measured.
- Operationalise the variables being investigated. Operational variables (or operationalizing definitions) refer to how you will define and measure a specific variable as it is used in your study.
- Decide on a direction for your prediction. If there is evidence in the literature to support a specific effect on the independent variable on the dependent variable, write a directional (one-tailed) hypothesis. If there are limited or ambiguous findings in the literature regarding the effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable, write a non-directional (two-tailed) hypothesis.
- Write your hypothesis. A good hypothesis is short (i.e. concise) and comprises clear and simple language.
What is the Sign Test?
Moreover, what kind of test is it and what does N and S represent?
✩ The sign test is a method used in interferential statistics to determine whether or not an observed result (from an experiment) is significant or not.
✩ It is a non-parametric test which means that there is no assumption that the data will follow a normal distribution.
✩ It is known as the Sign Test as it is based on the number of plus or minus signs present in the data after the calculations have taken place
✩ N = Number of Participants, S = The Observed Value
What criteria determine the use of the Sign Test?
Hint: There are four criteria, well technically three…
✩ Investigating a difference (i.e. an experiment)
✩ Repeated measures design (i.e. each participant experiences all conditions of the IV)
✩ Nominal data (i.e. data in categories)
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✩ Is the hypothesis directional or non-directional (this will determine which critical value to apply to the data)
What are the Steps of the Sign Test?
Hint: There are 6 steps, this could be an 8 marker.
- Subtract each value in the control condition from the experimental condition, recording the sign (+ or -)
- Count the number of times the less frequent sign appears to give you S
- Count the total number of pluses and minuses to get N
- Use the table of critical values for the sign test, picking one or two tailed as appropriate. The critical value at the intersection between N and the 0.05 level of significance.
- S must be less than or equal to the critical value to be significant
- State the conclusion (i.e. as the result is significant/not significant we cannot accept the null/alternative hypothesis; therefore, we accept the alternative/null hypothesis)
What is Randomisation?
✩ The use of chance (such as in choosing participants) in order to control for the effects of researcher bias when designing materials and deciding the order of conditions.
What is the difference between Type 1 and Type 2 errors?
How can we fix Type 1 and 2 errors?
✩ Type 1 error - Is a false positive. It is where you accept the alternative hypothesis when it is false —> overly lenient
Solution: Make significance level lower.
WHEREAS
✩ Type 2 error - Is a false negative. It is where you accept the null hypothesis when it is false –> overly strict
Solution: Make significance level higher.
Implications of Psychological Research for the Economy
Tell me about its implications in Attachment
✩ Role of the father – Tiffany Field found that fathers can take on the role of being a primary caregiver.
What does it mean for the economy?
✩ Mothers can return to work
✩ More flexible working arranges within families
✩ Can maximise their income and effectively contribute to the economy.
Implications of Psychological Research for the Economy
Tell me about its implications in Psychopathology
✩ Research into the association of low levels serotonin with OCD, has led to the development of SSRIs.
✩ Patients can simply take them and live relatively normal lives. This means that offering drugs can lead to an enhanced quality of life as patients are given independence.
What does this mean for the economy?
✩ This meant those patients could return to work, pay taxes and not cost the health care system more, which has a positive effect on the economy
Implications of Psychological Research for the Economy
Tell me about its implications in Forensic Psychology
✩ Eyewitness testimony – How leading questions or post event discussion can affect eyewitness testimony.
What does it mean for the economy?
✩ Led to police using the cognitive interview which reduces wrongful convictions of innocent civilians and hence reduces waste of money and space in jail.
What are the five features of Psychology as a Science?
Paradigms & paradigm shifts, Theory construction & hypothesis testing, Falsifiability, Replicability , Objectivity and the empirical method
Can you define Paradigms & paradigm shifts as a feature of Psychology as a science?
✩ A paradigm is a set of shared ideas and assumptions within a scientific discipline.
✩ A paradigm shift is a significant change in these central assumptions within a scientific discipline, resulting from a scientific revolution.
✩ Kuhn argues that paradigm shifts separate scientific disciplines from non-scientific disciplines, and that they also show progress within a science.
✩ When compared to this feature, psychology appears to have too much disagreement and conflicting approaches and thus some may argue it cannot qualify as a science but rather a pre-science.
Can you define Theory construction & hypothesis testing as a feature of Psychology as a science?
✩ Theory construction occurs through the gathering of evidence from direct observation using empirical methods. Theory should generate a testable hypothesis.
✩ Hypothesis testing - it should be possible to make clear predictions on the basis of the theory.
Can you define Replicability as a feature of Psychology as a science?
✩ Falsifiability is the principle that states a theory cannot be considered scientific unless it allows itself to be proven untrue. Popper argues that this is a key criterion for a scientific theory.
✩ He proposed the theory of falsification which states that successful theories that have been constantly tested and supported simply have not been proven wrong yet.
✩ Sciences that cannot be proven wrong are known as ‘psuedosciences’ - a good example is Freud’s concepts from the psychodynamic approach like the Oedipus Complex
Can you define Objectivity and the empirical method as a feature of Psychology as a science?
✩ Objectivity is when all possible biases from the researcher are minimised so that they do not influence or distort the research process.
✩ The empirical method is when evidence is collected through making direct observations and through direct experiences.
✩ A theory cannot be scientific unless it can be empirically tested and verified using either the empirical experimental or observational method.
Can you define Falsifiability as a feature of Psychology as a science?
✩ Replicability refers to the extent to which scientific methods and their results can be repeated by other researchers across other contexts and circumstances.
✩ It is used to assess validity and reliability of results from a research study.
What is the Serial Position Effect?
✩ Some of the strongest evidence for the multi-store model comes from serial position effect studies and studies of brain-damaged patients.
✩ The tendency to recall earlier words is called the primacy effect; the tendency to recall later words is called the recency effect.
✩ Murdock suggested that words early in the list were put into long term memory (primacy effect) because the person has time to rehearse each word acoustically.
✩ Words from the end of the list went into short term memory (recency effect) which can typically hold about 7 items.
✩ In a nutshell, when participants remember primary and recent information, it is thought that they are recalling information from two separate stores (STM and LTM).
What arguments are put fourth about Psychology as a Science?
Arguments For… #1 - Scientific Determinism
Expand point and provide an example.
✩ Scientific methods are used in many research studies giving them scientific credibility.
✩ For example, determinism is consistent with the aims of science as it allows us to predict behaviour through establishing cause and effect relationships and therefore allowing us to better understand and manage behaviour.
✩ This is evident in Bowlby’s maternal deprivation theory which allows researchers to identify that if children are left alone, during a critical period, they’ll need adequate substitute care to avoid the long-term effects of maternal deprivation such as problems with cognitive development.
What arguments are put fourth about Psychology as a Science?
Arguments Against… #1 - Observations
Expand point and provide an example.
✩ Experiment interpretations can be subjective and may not capture the true behaviour of participants, leading to the findings being low in validity.
✩ For example, observations depend on how the observer interprets the behaviour of the participant. This means that it is open to observer bias as the researcher may only note down behaviours that support their own theories, or behaviours that reflect what they hoped to find.
✩ Therefore, psychological methods of investigation may not be obtaining objective data and thus psychology cannot be viewed as a science.
What arguments are put fourth about Psychology as a Science?
Arguments Against… #2 - Case studies
Expand point and provide an example.
✩ While case studies do appear to provide rich qualitative data which can be used to gain insight into further research, it is unreliable and ungeneralisable.
✩ For example, HM’s case study was beneficial because it played a role in the development of the understanding of the localisation of brain function, but our use of case studies is limited in psychological research because this we cannot test for reliability as the study cannot be repeated as replicating brain damage in people is unethical. Therefore, psychology can be argued as not being a science as it does not meet the features of replicability as a feature of science.
What arguments are put fourth about Psychology as a Science?
Arguments Against… #3 - Cognitive Approach
Expand point and provide an example.
✩ The cognitive approach has also been criticised for being too abstract and theoretical. This is because cognitive psychologists are only able to infer mental processes from the behaviour they observe in their research.
✩ For example, neuroimaging evidence showing activity in the brain for certain cognitive functions is only correlational and does not signal scientific validation for theoretical models. This means that only assumptions/inferences can be made about mental processes because they cannot be directly observed which can cast doubt on the validity of the claims.
What is an acronym to remember references?
Surname (Some)
Date (Dinosaurs)
Title (Tried)
City (Calling)
Publisher (Papa)
What are behavourial categories?
✩ Behavioural categories contain a list of key behaviours, or collections of behaviour, that the researcher conducting the observation will pay attention to and record.
✩Target behaviour is broken up into a set of behavioural categories that should be precisely defined and made observable and measurable.
✩For instance, the target behaviour ‘affection’ may be broken down into observational categories such as hugging.
What are coding frames?
Provide an example…
✩Allow for more specific behaviours to be observed within a behaviour category. Codes and abbreviations can be used to record the severity of behaviours or a different subtype within a category.
✩Example of Codes – Severity of strength of the Kicks from weakest to strongest – K1 or K2 or K3 or K4 or K5.
How can we increase the validity of observations?
✩Carry out a covert observation so participants don’t change their behaviour (observer effect)
✩Double blind observations to reduce observer bias
✩Clearly operationalised coding system.
