Autism

Question 1

Broad category of symptoms for ASD no.1- using communication for social interaction- social-emotional reciprocity

Answer 1

Social- emotional reciprocity- refers to back and forth communication- includes exchanges of emotion, gestures and verbal communication w/ others- Reciprocity usually expected in conversation is lacking in those with ASD- often don’t use communication to share interests- usually interaction is one sided- when someone with ASD does attempt to interact- may be innapropriate

Question 2

Broad category of symptoms for ASD no.1- using communication for social interaction- nonverbal communication

Answer 2

• facial expressions/ body posture= crucial in maintaining social interactions- but someone with ASD- uses eye contact and ‘social smiling’ very little- facial expressions = generally limited or sometimes exaggerated-gestures eg pointing and nodding= used inappropriately- usually issues w/ body posture eg not facing person in conversation- nonverbal signals don’t communicate emotions accurately- may be a poor match between emotion apparently being shown and tone of voice

Question 3

Broad category of symptoms for ASD no.1- using communication for social interaction- Problems developing and maintaining relationships

Answer 3

People with ASD are said to lack a theory of mind- don’t understand other people have minds- so have trouble seeing world from other people’s perspective- hard for them to change their own behaviour to suit social context as they are unaware of the ‘rules’ or conventions that apply in social situations- so may express emotions inappropriately- eg laughing at the wrong time - or may fail to pick up on nonverbal signals that other people use to indicate discomfort- people with ASD- difficulty making friends- don’t initiate friendships or play cooperatively with other children

Question 4

Broad category of symptoms for ASD no.2- Repetitive behaviours- repetitive behaviour patterns

Answer 4

People with ASD may use language unusually- may repeat what they’ve just heard- from individual words to longer passages of speech (echolalia)- language can sometimes be bizarrely formal- extremely pedantic (has been called little professor syndrome in past)- movements can be highly repetitive from hand gestures (flicking) to whole body motions (spinning)- objects used in the same way over and over again (lining up toys)

Question 5

Broad category of symptoms for ASD no.1- repetitive behaviours- Routines, rituals and resistance to change

Answer 5

people with ASD stick inflexibly to routines- carrying out a behaviour eg lining up toys -in step by step sequence-no variation- may engage in verbal rituals- eg demanding others use words in a ‘set’ way- may overreact to changes in routines- rigid thinking patterns of ASD also reveal themselves in distinct preference for ‘literal forms of speech’ eg failing to detect flexible uses of language (irony, sarcasm) or other ‘rule breaking’ forms of behaviour

Question 6

Broad category of symptoms for ASD no.1- repetitive behaviours- restricted fixated interests

Answer 6

Common feature of ASD is an extremely intense preoccupation with a very narrow interest- eg particular toy or object to the total exclusion of others, or with a topic

Question 7

Broad category of symptoms for ASD no.1- repetitive behaviours- Unusual reactions to sensory input

Answer 7

Many people with ASD are preoccupied w/ touch, usually aversively eg children who intensely dislike having hair brushed- also may have obsessive interest in movement of objects eg spinning- first response to an object or some cases a person may be to lick/ sniff it- may look very closely at objects for long periods of time but for no apparent reason- will become distressed by some stimuli they’re not used to (eg sounds) yet appear completely indifferent to pain (own and others)

Question 8

Structure and function in the amygdala

Answer 8

Amygdala is mainly responsible for emotional experience- it is where we identify and react to things that cause us to feel certain emotions eg facial expressions- greatly influences social behaviour- due to this- has been suggested amygdala dysfunction is responsible for many social difficulties of ASD eg abnormal eye contact, difficulties associated with face processing and lack of mental understanding/ empathy

Question 9

Amygdala development in ASD

Answer 9

From age 2- larger than normal growth in amygdala’s volume in children w/ ASD about 6-9% Children w/out ASD- amygdala volume increases w/age but not until they’re older- late adolescence- no difference in amygdala volume between people w/ASD and w/out key difference is that growth in volume occurs earlier in children w/ASD- unusual pattern may result in less neurons later in life- damaging its functioning- larger amygdala growth= more social and communication impairments

Question 10

Amygdala dysfunction theory

Answer 10

Brothers (last name) called amygdala the ‘social brain’ in humans because of its central role in influencing social behaviour - Baron-Cohen carried out ‘the eyes task’- investigate the links between this impairment and amygdala dysfunction- ppts w/ASD performed significantly worse than the controls - fMRI scans showed that during this task- left amygdala wasn’t activated in ASD ppts at all- but was strongly activated in the controls- suggests amygdala is involved when we infer other’s emotional states from facial expressions-function= impaired w/ those w/ASD

Question 11

Amygdala eval - supporting evidence

Answer 11

Baron-Cohen- eye test- individuals cannot detect facial expressions when shown in eye area only- fMRI scanner- left amygdala not activated at all in ASD but was for controls- supports fact that ASD individuals have a dysfunctional amygdala- particuarly left- left amygdala- detects other’s emotional states from facial expressions- impaired in ASD- therefore supporting the amygdala dysfunction theory

Question 12

Amygdala eval- Reductionist

Answer 12

Amygdala- part of limbic system- alone not enough to explain social deficits in ASD- Paul et al- studied 2 women (1 was SM)- had damaged both amygdala- damage confined to amygdala- didn’t greatly affect surrounding areas- these women showed signs of impaired social behaviour- but impairment= nowhere near as extensive as found in clinically diagnosed ASD- shows how complex regulation of social behaviour is and role of the brain in ASD= complex- risks= oversimplified by focus on just the amygdala- Nordahl also found those w/ weakest neural connectivity between brain areas have most severe autistic traits- amygdala not working alone

Question 13

amygdala eval- cause or effect

Answer 13

Dysfunctional amygdala has been linked to many conditions eg anxiety and bipolar disorder- makes it difficult to say how region may uniquely explain autism traits- amygdala= known to play crucial role in regulating fear/ anxiety related behaviour- Ollendick- pointed out anxiety is commonly reported- suggests indirect link between amygdala function/ social behaviour impairments by abnormal processing of anxiety- perhaps abnormal amygdala causes anxiety -causes social difficulties in ASD - suggesting it is a direct cause- this is a more complex explanation than conventional amygdala dysfunction theory needs to be established whether amygdala dysfunction is cause or effect of ASD

Question 14

amygdala eval- method issues

Answer 14

Objective and scientific explanation - use of brain scans (e.g. Baren-Cohen, 1999 used fMRI scan to carry out ‘the eyes task’). High validity - compare amygdala activity using scientific measurements. Amygdala dysfunction can explain social & communication impairments but is less successful in accounting for non-social features of the disorder - repetitive behaviours & obsessive interests

Question 15

Bio genetics- twin studies

Answer 15

Bailey et al (1995) conducted ‘The British Twin Study’ and found the following concordance rates: MZ twins: 60% DZ: 0% Wider definition of autism (broader autistic phenotype) found the following concordance rates: MZ: 92% DZ: 10%

Question 16

Bio genetics- family studies

Answer 16

Considerable evidence suggests clinically diagnosed ASD runs in families. Szatmari (1999) - Calculated ‘overall sibling risk’ i.e. the proportion of siblings of people diagnosed with ASD who also have ASD. FINDINGS: 2.2% risk if you have siblings with ASD 0.11% risk if you have NO siblings with ASD 20 times greater risk of developing ASD if your sibling has it.

Question 17

bio- simplex and multiplex ASD

Answer 17

Bernier et al (2012) Multiplex ASD/Multiplex families – more than one member has ASD/autistic traits not diagnosed as ASD ASD caused by inherited genetic variations. Simplex ASD/Simplex families – only one member has ASD ASD has ‘de novo’ (a new) genetic causes

Question 18

Simplex and multiplex p2

Answer 18

Sebat et al (2007) ‘ De Novo’ Genetic mutations occur when sequences of DNA are deleted/duplicated as the ovum is fertilised by the sperm. This mutation is then replicated across all cells during cell division. This affects multiple genes known as copy number variations (CNVs). De Novo CNVs account for 10% of ASD diagnoses. More likely to happen when parents are older – age of parents is a risk for simplex ASD.

Question 19

Bio exp- supporting evidence

Answer 19

Bailey’s twin studies- describe- not 100% has to be other explanations- also 0% question validity of genetics in development of ASD as DZ twins still share 50%

Question 20

Genetics- reductionist

Answer 20

Focus on nature- ignores nurture- ASD also linked to environmental factors eg exposure to environmental or prenatal factors (Landigran 2010) Child may have a predisposition to ASD through genes but may only develop it if they experience a trigger (diathesis) Genetic explanation is incomplete in order for a more holistic explanation of ASD- genes should be considered alongside environmental- supporting diathesis stress exp

Question 21

Genetics- cause or effect

Answer 21

Exp relies on heritability studies- so difficult to establish cause and effect when using non experimental methods- Szatmari’s research showed that if you have sibling with ASD other sibling is 20x more likely to have ASD- but closely related family members are more likely to live with each other- so shared environment rather than genes could be the cause of the high concordance rates - adoption studies need to be considered - separate out nature and nurture

Question 22

Genetics methodological issues

Answer 22

Positive applications- potential to predict ASD in young children or foetuses by screening for certain gene variants - aim to make earlier diagnosis more reliable - avoid long processes of waiting for ASD diagnosis/ put interventions in place - But very large no.s of candidate genes linked to development in autism- poses practical issues as it’s unlikely genetic tests will be able to screen for so many candidate genes w/ high degree of occurence- tricky to decide which genes to target in potential therapies

Question 23

Individual exp - Theory of Mind

Answer 23

Baron-Cohen (1995) – ‘TOM & ASD’ People with ASD don’t have a fully functioning ToM. They have ‘mindblindness’ (reduced ability to understand mental states of others). Core deficit of ASD - leads to difficulty understanding people and social difficulties.

Question 24

Precursors to ToM

Answer 24

We aren’t born knowing that others have beliefs and desires that are unique from our own. There are several precursors (or skills) that infants need to develop their theory of mind. ntentionality – key skill for ToM. People act according to things they want - actions are goal directed E.g. reach for an apple - infer they are hungry. Go back inside the house after walking through the door - infer they have forgotten something

Question 25

Precursor 2- joint attention

Answer 25

Joint attentionJoint attention – key skill for ToM. Adult draws attention to an object using gestures. Joint attention suggests child is processing another person’s mental state, recognising that object is something that another person thinks is of interest. Scaife and Bruner found typical children can understand joint attention by 14 months - but impaired in those w/ASD- underlies social/communication problems

Question 26

Testing ToM deficits

Answer 26

Baron-Cohen used Sally-Anne test to investigate false beliefs- study involved 3 groups of children: ASD children and 2 control groups (down syndrome and typical developing). Of the 'normal' 4 year old children, 85% responded correctly as did 86% of children with down syndrome- but only 20% of children with ASD gave right answer - suggests ASD children have difficulties processing tasks that require ToM

Question 27

ToM- supporting evidence

Answer 27

Cohen et al (1985): Sally-Anne task study Compared ASD children with Down’s Syndrome children. IQ was tested prior (ASD - 82; DS - 64) - intelligence had nothing to do with the differences found. Findings: 85% of children with no disability, 86% of children with Down's syndrome and 20% of children with ASD were able to correctly answer where Sally would look for the marble. However - 20% passed the test - some children with ASD do have theory of mind - explanation can’t explain this

Question 28

ToM- reductionist

Answer 28

Reductionist - suggests that the cause of ASD is due to impaired ToM, reducing behaviour down to an individual's cognitive processes. Evidence to suggest that ASD is due to genetic factors. Bailey found MZ twins have a 92% concordance rate and DZ twins have a 10% concordance rate, which the ToM explanation doesn’t even consider? Reducing ASD down to a poorly functioning ToM is dangerous and oversimplifies the complexity of the disorder as there is large amounts of research evidence to show that there are 200-400 genes linked to ASD which this explanation ignores.

Question 29

ToM- cause and effect

Answer 29

Unclear whether ToM could be the cause of autism or whether having autism affects the functioning of the ToM. Most researchers would argue at least some cognitive deficits, including poorly working ToM are actually a cause of ASD, however the cognitive explanations only explain the proximal causes of ASD (current symptoms). Gallagher and Frith (2003) reviewed fMRI studies and found that one key brain area that underpins ToM is the superior temporal sulcus. Therefore, the cause of poor ToM may be due to biological factors, which the explanation fails to consider.

Question 30

ToM- method issues

Answer 30

ToM explanation can explain social and communication impairments in ASD, however, less successful in accounting for non-social features of the disorder, especially for repetitive behaviours - only a partial explanation Criticism of Sally Anne task (and other false belief tasks) - cannot complete it due to language, attention or memory issues - not an accurate/valid measure of ToM.

Question 31

Individual exp 2- weak central coherence- global vs local processing

Answer 31

With everyday tasks- to deal with some events need to be able to look at fine details- different elements that make up task (local), but sometimes need to look at bigger picture (global)- look at whole stimulus (Frith, 1989) – Central coherence Our ability to integrate the fine details into an overall pattern & understand how elements come together in a meaningful way. Universal feature of normal processing – involves understanding the context of something

Question 32

Weak central coherence and ASD

Answer 32

Central coherence= lacking in ASD - process info in more detail oriented manner (local) than overall meaning of something (global)- this global processing deficit means they struggle when the task requires an understanding of the 'big picture' of connections between the elements of a problem- eg- people may focus on people's mouth when they speak- may miss out other important details eg facial expressions But many with ASD excel at tasks which involve picking out detail due to enhanced local processing eg may have exceptionally strong skills require focussed attention to detail eg maths, technology, art or music

Question 33

Weak central coherence- research-Shah and Frith-

Answer 33

Experiment testing WCC- ppts (ASD, neurotypical and learning difficulties) were shown a 2D pattern on a card and had to construct the same pattern using smaller blocks- involved mentally breaking up the image- ASD performed better on the task than controls- suggests ASD have a preference for local processing cognitive style - but lost their performance advantage when patterns were presented already broken down into 4 parts- no longer using local processing

Question 34

Weak central coherence- -central coherence on a continuum

Answer 34

Happe and Frith- central coherence is a cognitive style or a preference for one form of processing over another (local vs global)- small proportion have extremely strong (high global weak local) and is normally distributed in the general population

Question 35

Weak central coherence eval- supporting evidence

Answer 35

Lots of supporting evidence for the WCC theory. Shah & Frith decription

Question 36

Weak central eval- reductionist

Answer 36

Provides valuable insights into the cognitive processing differences in ASD. But focus = specific cognitive style (WCC) Reduces complexity of ASD to a single cognitive style oversimplifying ASD. Ignores other factors eg genetics, social and environmental aspects has on ASD which there's clear evidence for

Question 37

Weak central eval- cause or effect

Answer 37

Does a WCC cause ASD or the effect of having ASD. Some researchers argue it is the cause as focusing on details influences the social & communication difficulties. Some researchers argue WCC might be an effect - neural & cognitive differences that underlie ASD could lead to the specific cognitive style. Also doesn’t explain cause of WCC in the first place - Some researchers have suggested the right hemisphere is responsible for global processing, however research is limited and no firm conclusions have been reached.

Question 38

Weak central eval- method issues

Answer 38

This theory is able to explain both social and non-social characteristics of ASD (fixated interests come from high local processing but also emotional reciprocity, unable to register the gist of a conversation, instead focusing on specific detial). But does not explain all social deficits e.g lack of eye contact. Therefore, is only a partial explanation of ASD. However - Positive explanation - ASD superior abilities in local processing, such as detail memories and attention to detail. Refreshing compared to the usual pessimistic focus on what they cannot do.

Question 39

Social exp1- empathising systemising theory- description

Answer 39

Baron-Cohen describes ability to empathise and systemise as Empathise- Drive to identify another person's emotions and thoughts and to respond to these with appropriate emotion/ behaviour- empathising allows you to predict a person's behaviour/ care about how others feel Systemising- drive to analyse the variables in a system and to understand the underlying rules of a system allowing you to predict the behaviour of a system, rather than human beings and to control it

Question 40

Social exp1- empathising systemising theory- description p2

Answer 40

Balanced person would have abilities in equal measure- but those w/ ASD= impaired empathising ability when understanding body language, interactions and emotions- explains difficulties w/ social interaction and communication- but systemising ability= superior to typically developing people - explains strengths in attending to and recalling details and weaknesses of narrow interests, repetitive behaviours and desire for sameness and routine- mismatch between empathy (below average) and systemising (above average) that's characteristic of ASD

Question 41

Sex differences in empathising and systemising

Answer 41

Baron Cohen- females are better empathisers than males- more sensitive to facial expressions of emotion and have keener instinct about how others feel- males= better systemisers than females - have greater ability to analyse systems/ work out the 'rules' by which they operate- can explain why males= 4x more likely to have ASD- males w/ ASD possess extreme male brain whereas girls w/ ASD will have less impairment in empathising and less hyper-developed systemising- mismatch less extreme

Question 42

Sex differences in empathising and systemising- Lawson study

Answer 42

Lawson- tested 3 groups of ppts males w/ ASD, males w/out ASD and females selected from gen pop- compare empathising and systemising abilities- females performed better at empathising tasks than males w/out ASD and males w/out ASD performed better than males with ASD- females performed worst on systemsing and males didn't significantly differ- supports empathising impaired in ASD/ systemising= either similar or superior

Question 43

2 components of empathy

Answer 43

- cog element recognising and understanding mental states- focus of ToM impaired -Affective empathy- Ability to respond w/ appropriate emotion- typically developing- if they see a person is upset they'll also feel upset-ASD- respond w/ personal distress- feel bad for selves- impaired empathetic concern- (don't connect feeling to other person)

Question 44

Empathising- systemising- eval- supporting evidence

Answer 44

Lawson- describe-what it supports

Question 45

Empathising- systemising- eval- reductionist

Answer 45

While theory gives valuable insight into understanding cognitive and personality differences of individuals w/ASD- some critics argue that the explanation is reductionist - E-S theory suggests cog style associated w/ASD- (systemisers rather than empathisers) but doesn't delve into genetic, biological or environmental factors as to why they have this thinking style to begin with (234 candidate genes linked to ASD- could be due to vio factors)- reducing ASD to E/S tendencies oversimplifies a complex condition that likely involves a combo of genetic, cultural and social factors

Question 46

Cause and effect

Answer 46

Can't establish cause and effect- higher systemising abilities causes ASD and limits empathising abilities- effect- having ASD affects an individuals cog preference and personality, impairing their empathising abilities -ES theory overlaps w/ ToM and WCC- interplay between different cog processes, unclear which mechanism actually causes social difficulties- limiting validity of E-S theory

Question 47

E-S eval- method issues

Answer 47

Baron- Cohen's e/s measuring scales have been questioned (self report questionare) Nettle- Homosexual women score highly on systemising than heterosexual women- no theoretical explanation to account for this difference Validity of E-S theorybhas been questioned- invalid measuring instruments by which theory is based on- but positive applications- presenting emotions in a ASD friendly format eg DVD presents vehicles with human faces- mechanical aspects captures ASD child interest while improving emotion recognition

Question 48

Social Psychological explanation 2 - refrigerator mother

Answer 48

Kanner studied 11 children who presented with classic symptoms of ASD - note their behaviour- Kanner also observed the children's parents and said for whole group 'very few really warm hearted fathers and mothers' Kanner later described children with ASD as having been brought up in 'emotional refrigerators' considered parents= cold, distant, overly intellectual-mothers= 'just happening to defrost long enough to produce a child'

Question 49

Emotional refrigerators- psychodynamic explanation

Answer 49

Kanner's views originate from psychodynamic approach- Freudian view- focusses on unconscious causes of development/ behaviour- suggesting the cause of psychological disorder= childhood experiences 1940s onwards- very influential approach in psychiatry when ASD was first being identified/ described Resulted in practitioners/ researchers looking for emotional cause of ASD symptoms in early childhoods especially in child's relationship

Question 50

Bettleheim and 'The Empty Fortress'

Answer 50

Kanner formed the ' refrigerator mother' hypothesis but Bettelheim gave it widespread popularity- Bettelheim built a reputation as a highly regarded specialist in the treatment of autistic children - Bettelheim declared that autism was an emotional disorder that developed in some children due to psych harm brought upon them by their mothers Theories likened lives of autistic children to the experience of prisoners in Nazi concentration camps where he himself had spent 10 months in WW2- compared mothers to Nazi guards and stated his belief that causing factor in infantile autism is the 'parent's wish that the child shouldn't exist' Brought the refrigerator mother out of academic world into popular media

Question 51

Refrigerator mother- eval- supporting evidence

Answer 51

Kanner- research description But Rimland identified several (bit more than several love) issues- firstly found majority of parents of children w/ ASD do not match the description w/ refrigerator mother- also most parents who match 'refrigerator' type don't have ASD children- Campbell estimate 93% of children w/ ASD have siblings who don't have disorder- parent style doesn't invariably lead to ASD- also lots of symptoms in ASD are similar to symptoms of brain damage in children- may be bio cause

Question 52

Refrigerator mother-Reductionist

Answer 52

Refrigerator mother= reductionist- suggests ASD is consequence and a problem of nurture (ASD= being brought up in emotional refrigerators whereby parents, especia;lly mothers are cold, distant and overly intellectual) Strong evidence to suggest ASD is due to genetic factors eg Bailey mz= 92%; dz= 10% theory doesn't acknowledge innate bio factors- dangerous- oversimplifies complexity of ASD- 200-400 genes linked to ASD- exp ignores

Question 53

Cause or effect

Answer 53

Studying the families of autistic children may commonly observe mothers who appear depressed, anxious and emotionally unavailable- typical characteristics of a 'refrigerator mother'- but cannot be assumed that such a parent caused autism in their children- more likely their mood and behaviour are a result in child having ASD - lack of mutual affection may also be observed between the mother and child, but this isn't necessarily a sign of abuse or deprivation- therefore illustrates a fundamental issue w/ refrigerator mother hypothesis

Question 54

Methodological issues

Answer 54

Only researched 11 children and their families -Sample= educated families within the academic community to which Kanner had access -Innacurate assumption- ASD children born to middle/ upper class families- presented as cold or distant, overly intellectual - Destructive explanation place burden on mothers as causing ASD in their child- causing emotional and psychological distress- mothers judged -non scientific- completely invalidated/ discredited

Question 55

Aims of PECS

Answer 55

One of the core communication deficits of ASD is a failure to initiate conversation or maintain the flow of conversations- PECS is a means of communication intended to complement or replace in speech in children/ adults w/ ASD- enable 'functional' communication usually develops in a typically developing child's first year- using gestures and eventually words and sentences PECS replaces spoken words with pictures