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biology > B2 > Flashcards

B2 Flashcards

1
Q

what is disease?

A

a condition that commonly damages cells of the host and impairs the functioning of the organism

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2
Q

what are the causes of disease?

A

infection, mutation, environmental conditions, trauma, lifestyle

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3
Q

what is a communicable disease?

A

a disease that can spread between organisms

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4
Q

what causes disease?

A

pathogens infecting the bacteria

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5
Q

what is a pathogen?

A

type of microorganism that causes disease
- bacteria, viruses, protists and fungi

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6
Q

what is a non communicable disease?

A

disease that cannot be passed onto another organism

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7
Q

examples of non communicable disease

A

cardiovascular and respiratory diseases, cancers and diabetes

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8
Q

what are symtoms?

A

changes in the organism that indicate disease is presnt

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9
Q

what is the incubation period

A

time between being infected with a pathogen and showing symptoms of the disease

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10
Q

what are bacteria?

A
  • very small cells that can reproduce rapidly
  • they produce toxins that damage cells and tissues
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11
Q

what are viruses?

A
  • not cells
  • replicate themselves inside the infected organism’s cells which then burst and releases the viruses
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12
Q

what are protists?

A
  • eukaryotic, single celled and vary in size
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13
Q

what are fungi?

A
  • have hyphae, thread like structures
  • hyphae can grow and penetrate human skin and the surface of plants
  • can produce spores that can be spread
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14
Q

how are communicable diseases spread?

A

water, air, on surfaces, body fluids, animal vectors, soil, food

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15
Q

water transmission

A
  • drinking or bathing in dirty water
  • cholera gets spread by contaminated water by the diarrhoea of other sufferers
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16
Q

air transmission

A
  • pathogens can travel by the wind and in the air
  • airborne pathogens can be breathed in by others
  • flu, chalara ash dieback
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17
Q

surface transmission

A
  • touching contaminated surfaces
  • in plants, TMV when infected leaves rub against healthy leaves
  • in humans, touching the same things as an infected person
  • tobacco mosaic disease, athletes foot
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18
Q

body fluids transmission

A
  • blood, breastmilk, semen
  • exchange of body fluids
  • HIV is a virus spread by exchanging body fluids , which gives flu like symptoms. the virus enters the lymph nodes and attacks the immune system so it cants cope with other infections or cancers. by this part, its known as AIDS or late stage HIIV
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19
Q

animal vectors transmission

A
  • animals that spread disease are called vectors
  • malaria from mosquitoes that pick up protists and when it feeds on an animal, it inserts the protists into their blood, causing fever
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20
Q

soil transmission

A
  • comes from pathogens that live in the soil
  • bacteria that causes crown gall disease live in soil and once it enters a plant is can grow galls which damages the plant tissue
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21
Q

food transmission

A
  • can come from eating contaminated food
  • salmonella is found in some foods like raw meat
  • if kept for too long or not cooked property, it can cause food poisoning
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22
Q

defence systems

A
  • non specific
  • always presnt
  • physical, microbial or chemical
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23
Q

physical defences

A

mucus and cilia in respiratory tracts
- mucus traps pathogens and cilia wafts pathogens to back of the throat
skin
- acts as a barrier
platelets
- helps blood clot helping to plug the wound

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24
Q

chemical defences

A

eyes
saliva
stomach

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25
Q

eyes as defence

A

tears produce lysozyme which break down bacteria on surface of eye

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26
Q

saliva as defence

A

contains molecules that kill pathogens that enter the mouth

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27
Q

stomach as defence

A

produces hydrochloric acid which kills pathigens

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28
Q

microbial defences

A

pathogens that make it past the saliva and stomach and enter intestine where they compete with the bacteria that live there to survive

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29
Q

phagocytosis

A

phagocytes have a flexible membrane, allowing them to engulf foreign cells and digest them

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30
Q

antibodies

A

Antibodies work by recognizing and binding to specific pathogens, such as viruses and bacteria. This binding process neutralizes the pathogen and marks it for destruction by other components of the immune system. The immune system also remembers the pathogen, so if it infects the body again in the future, the immune system can respond more quickly and effectively.

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31
Q

antitoxins

A

Antitoxins are substances produced by the immune system to neutralize toxins produced by harmful bacteria. They work by binding to the toxins and inactivating them, preventing them from causing harm to the body.

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32
Q

how reduce and prevent spreading diseases in animals

A
  • being hygienic
  • sterilising wounds
  • living in sanitary conditions
  • destroying infected animals
  • isolating infected animals
  • vaccination
  • contraception
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33
Q

how to reduce and prevent spreading diseases in plants

A
  • regulating plant movement
  • destroying infected plants
  • crop rotation
  • polyculture
  • chemical control
  • biological control
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34
Q

how to regulate plant movemnet?

A

make sure infected plants dont come into contact with infected ones

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35
Q

polyculture

A

growing different types of plants in a single area

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36
Q

chemical control

A

fungicides can be used to kill fungal infections but can lead to the evolution of resistant strains

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37
Q

biological control

A

one organism is used to control a pest or pathogen

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38
Q

the immune system

A
  • destroys pathogens that make it past defence systems
  • they consume pathogens then produce antibodies and antitoxins
  • contains white blood cells
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39
Q

what is vaccination?

A

dead, inactive or weakened pathogens are injected into the body

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40
Q

what is phagocytosis?

A
  • Phagocytosis is carried out by a special type of white blood cell called a phagocyte.
  • The first step is for the phagocyte to track down a pathogen, and then bind to it.
  • The phagocyte’s membrane will then surround the pathogen and engulf it.
  • Finally, enzymes inside the phagocyte break down the pathogen in order to destroy it.
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41
Q

whjat does an antitoxin do?

A

Bind and neutralise the toxins produced by bacteria

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42
Q

what is a risk factor?

A

something that increases someones chance of getting that disease

43
Q

what can be some risk factors?

A

lifestyle, environment and genes

44
Q

how can some diseases happen?

A

by other risk factors interacting with others
–> genetic variant and poor diet could give you cancer

45
Q

why does exercise decrease risk of disease

A
  • more energy used, decreasing body fat stored
  • builds muscle which boosts metabolic rate
46
Q

why does lack of exercise increase risk of disease?

A

lack of exercise increases blood pressure

47
Q

what does eating too much lead to?

A

obesity

48
Q

what does obesity lead to?

A

type 2 diabetes, high blood pressure and CVD

49
Q

what does too much saturated fat lead to?

A

increased cholesterol

50
Q

what leads to coronary heart disease?

A

too much bad cholesterol in the blood, causing fatty deposits to form in artery walls

51
Q

what can eating too little lead to?

A

malnurition

52
Q

hat does malnutrition lead to?

A

fatigue and poor resistance to infection

53
Q

what causes deficiency diseases?

A

lack of vitamins or minerals

54
Q

what can reduce risk of non communicable diseases?

A

healthy, balanced diet

as well as exercise

55
Q

how does alcohol affect the liver

A

its broken down by enzymes in the liver and has toxic products
–> this causes the death of liver cells, forming scar tissue that stops blood reaching the liver, causing cirrhosis

56
Q

how does alcohol cause CVD

A

too much increases the blood pressure

57
Q

how does alcohol cause cancer

A

the toxic products damage DNA and cause cells to divide faster than normal

58
Q

what are the products of fags

A

nicotine, tar, carbon monoxide and particulates

59
Q

how does smoking cause CVD

A
  • carbon monoxide reduces how well blood carries oxygen and if the cardiac muscle doesnt get oxygen, it leads to a heart attack
  • nicotine increases the heart rate meaning the heart contrats more, increasing blood pressure
60
Q

how can smoking cause cancer?

A

tar has carcinogens, creating mutations in the DN leading to uncontrollable cell division

61
Q

how does smoking cause lung disease?

A

smoke causes inflammation of bronchi and bronchioles (lining) causing permanent damage

62
Q

how does smoking affect pregnancy?

A

causes health problems for the baby

63
Q

global trends

A
  • lack of excersise and high alc consumption suggests high income
  • smoking deaths are common in poorer countries
64
Q

why is obesity a problem for all globally?

A
  • higher income people can afford high fat food
  • lower income people are eating cheaper, less healthy foods
65
Q

national trends

A
  • deprived areas are more likely to smoke, have poor diet and not do physical activity
  • this means they are more likely to have heart disease, obesity, type 2 diabetes and cancer
66
Q

what do individual life choices do?

A

if you choose to smoke, drink, have a bad diet and not exercise, you increase your risk

67
Q

what is your recovery rate?

A

the time it takes for the pulse rate to return to the resting rate

68
Q

what is a high resting rate and a slow recovery rate linked to?

A

non communicable diseases

69
Q

what can reduce resting heart rate and speed up recovery rate?

A

regular exercise

70
Q

what does regular exercise reduce?

A

non communicable disease

71
Q

what do long term studies do?

A

help scientists determine what kind of exercise or length of training programme is most effective for improving resting heart rate, allowing them to make lifestyle recommendations

72
Q

what are painkillers?

A
  • drugs that relive pain and symptoms
  • don’t tackle cause of disease or kill pathogen
73
Q

what else do drugs do?

A

reduce how severe the symptoms are or how long they last for

74
Q

what are antibiotics?

A

chemicals that kill bacteria without killing body cells

75
Q

how are antibiotics made?

A

produced naturally by fungi and pharmaceutical companies can grow them on a large scale

76
Q

what are antivirals used for?

A

treat viral infections

77
Q

why are antivirals hard to produce?

A

viruses use host cells to replicate so its hard to target the virus without damaging the cell

78
Q

what do antivirals do?

A

stop the virus from reproducing

79
Q

what does the misuse of antibiotics do?

A

increases the rate of development of resistant strains

80
Q

how do resistant bacteria become more common?

A
  • bacteria with the most resistance have survived the treatment
  • since there is less competition, they can grow and reproduce more easily
81
Q

how can we avoid antibiotic resistance?

A
  • give antibiotics only when needed
  • complete the full course
  • take the right amount of dosage
82
Q

how are atheromas formed?

A

when fatty deposits inside arteries harden

83
Q

what is coronary heart disease?

A

when the arteries that give blood to the heart are filled with atheromas, as this restricts blood flow to the heart

84
Q

what causes a blood clot?

A

when bits of atheromas break off or damage the blood vessel

85
Q

what causes heart attack?

A

complete blockage of an artery or blood vessels

86
Q

what causes stroke?

A

if the blood vessel blockage is in the brain

87
Q

what lifestyle changes can prevent CVD?

A

healthy diet, regular exercise, stopping smoking

88
Q

what do statins do?

A

reduce the amount of cholesterol in the bloodstream, slowing down the rate of fatty tissues

89
Q

what are anticoagulants?

A

drugs which make blood clots less likely to form

90
Q

what are antihypertensives?

A

they reduce blood pressure which makes atheromas and blood clots less likely to form

91
Q

side effects of statins

A

kidney failure, liver damage and memory problems

92
Q

side effects of anticoagulants

A

causes excessive bleeding if person is hurt

93
Q

side effects of antihypertensives

A

headaches or fainting

94
Q

what are stents?

A

tubes inserted inside arteries, keeping them open so blood can pass to the heart
- over time, the artery can get irritated, making scar tissue grow over the stent

95
Q

what is coronary bypass surgery?

A

if part of a blood vessel is blocked, a healthy vessel can be taken from somewhere else

96
Q

donor heart

A
  • a heart gets donated
  • it might not pump properly
  • the immune system could reject the heart bcs its seen as ‘foreign’
97
Q

risks of heart surgery

A

bleeding, clots and infection

98
Q

preclinical testing

A
  1. drugs are tested on cultured human cells
  2. drugs are tested on live animals
99
Q

why is preclinical testing done?

A

to test if the drug is effective and find out how safe it is

100
Q

clinical testing

A
  1. drug gets tested on healthy volunteers
  2. drug is tested on person with disease
101
Q

what is the placebo test?

A

placebo effect occurs when someone feels they are better when they have been given a dummy form of the drug, not the drug itself

102
Q

what is a blind clinical trial

A

a trial where the people taking part don’t know which treatment they are getting out of the real piece or a placebo

103
Q

what are double blind tests?

A

the patient nor doctor knows who has the placebo

104
Q

why are trials blind?

A

so doctors monitoring and analysing arent subconsciously influenced by their knowledge

biology (6 decks)

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