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Anatomical sciences > Basal Ganglia > Flashcards

Basal Ganglia Flashcards

1
Q

basal ganglia definition

A

Collection of neuronal nuclei that connect the cerebral cortex to the thalamus and brain stem

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2
Q

What is the basal ganglia made up of

A

caudate nucleus
putamen
globus pallidus
substantia nigra
subthalamic nucleus

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3
Q

role of the basal ganglia

A

motor control
cognitive function
emotion
motivation
learning

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4
Q

receive information from the

A

cerebral cortex

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5
Q

sends information to the

A

thalamus and brain stem

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6
Q

Globus pallidus

A

Main output centre of the basal ganglia
Prevents unwanted movements - inhibitory on the thalamus

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7
Q

how to promote smooth movement

A

balance direct and indirect pathways

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8
Q

Glia cells = Satellite cell role

A

peripheral NS
surround neutron cell bodies in ganglia
regulate O2, CO2, nutrient and neurotransmitter levels around neuron’s in ganglia

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9
Q

Glia cells = Schwann cells

A

peripheral NS
surround axons
responsible for myelination of peripheral axons
participate in repair process after injury

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10
Q

Glia cells = Oligodendrocytes

A

CNS
myeline axons
structural framework

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11
Q

Glia cells - astrocytes

A

CNS
maintain BBB
structural support
regulate ion nutrient and dissolves gas conc
absorb and recycle neurotransmitters
form scar tissue after injury

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12
Q

Glia cells = Microglia

A

CNS
remove cell debris, waste and pathogens
phagocytosis

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13
Q

Serotonin - output from what cell and its function?

A

Raphe nucleus
Arousal, sensory processing, mood, emotion

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14
Q

Dopamine - output from what cell and its function?

A

compact part of substantial nigra
ventral tegmental nucleus
Motivation, motor control, memory and learning

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15
Q

Noradrenaline - output from what cell and its function?

A

Ceruleus nucleus
arousal, attention, memory, pain, stress

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16
Q

direct pathway

A

silences the neurons in globus pallidus - this frees the thalamusfrom the inhibitory effects of the global pallidus= allows moving quicker

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17
Q

indirect pathway

A

Subthalamic nucleus = leads to increased suppression of unwanted movements

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18
Q

how is serotonin synthesised

A

tryptophan ->(TPH) -> 5-Hydroxytryptophan -> (AADC) -> 5HT (serotonin)

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19
Q

where are the enzyme responsible for serotonin synthesis located

A

specific neurons and brainstem

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20
Q

what does tryptophan cross BBB with and how

A

using a common transporter with other LNAAs(large neutral amino acids = valine, leucine, isoleucine, phenylalanine, tyrosine, methionine)

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21
Q

effects of high levels of LNAAs

A

high protein diet, tryptophan is less likely to be taken up by the brain and is the rate limiting step for serotonin synthesis in the brain

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22
Q

are males or female more capable of producing serotonin

A

males - 52% more capable of producing serotonin
Tryptophan deficiency = precursor of serotonin = 4th fold decrease in brain serotonin synthesis in females compared to males

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23
Q

seronin transporter

A

vesicular monoamine transporter

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24
Q

how is serotonin transported to post synapse

A
  • packed into vesicles
  • transported by exocytosis
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25
Q

how does serotonin go back to pre synapse

A

via serotonin transporter

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26
Q

steps at post synaptase = serotonin

A

· Stop continuous stimulation of certain logic receptors located at the postsynaptic membrane
· Monoamide oxidase = degrades serotonin = 5-hydroxy indole acetic acid- number of certain logic receptors found in the brain (7 families, 14 receptors)

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27
Q

how are serotonin levels controlled

A

· If level of serotonin is high at synaptic cleft = signal the property when a receptor presynaptic cell and this will signal to the rest of the cell that deserted and production should slow down = less serotonin at the end will be produced
· When receptor is not simulated = signals to the cells that there is not enough serotonin produced = accelerate serotonin acceleration

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28
Q

what two groups are Serotoninergic monoaminergic brainstem nuclei concentrated in

A
  1. The raphe magus, raphe obscurus and raphe pallidus= projects from the medulla to the spinal cord and modulates afferent pain signals, thermoregulation, cardiovascular control and breathing.
  2. The rostral median and dorsal raphe that project from the pons/midbrain to the forebrain and all cortical areas
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29
Q

what do serotoninergic cells regulate

A

arousal, attention, mood, cognition

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30
Q

what are the families of 5HT receptors are there GPCRs

A

· Seven families and 15 subtypes of 5HTR (5HTR1-5HTR7)
· All of them are G-protein-coupled receptors, except for 5HT3, which is a ion channel.

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31
Q

step from tryptophan to 5-HTP called

A

tryptophan hydroxylation

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32
Q

step from 5-HTP to 5HT called

A

5HTP decarboxylation

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33
Q

dopamine synthesis

A

phenylalanine
(phenylalanine hydroxylate)
tyrosine
(tyrosine hydroxylate)
L-DOPA
(aromatic L amino acid decarvoxylase)
dopamine

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34
Q

dopamine to noradrenaline

A

dopamine
(dopamine B hydroxylate)
noradrenaline

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35
Q

where is dopamine synthesised

A

CNS
chromium affinity cells in adrenal medulla

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36
Q

how is dopamine/ noradrenaline transported

A

Dopamine (precursor of noradrenaline)
Dopamine is transported into synaptic vesicle by vesicular monoamine transporters (vMATs)

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37
Q

vMAT1 expressed

A

chromium affinity cell sof the adrenal gland

38
Q

vMAT2 expressed

A

neurons

39
Q

role of vMATs

A

accumulate monoamines in vesicles by exchange transport with H+

40
Q

role of NET and NAT

A

· After release = reuptake by norepinephrine transporter (NET) or noradrenaline transporter (NAT)
· NET is Na+/K+-ATPase-dependent and transports noradrenaline into the cell by Na+/Cl- cotransport.
NETs are also regulated by phosphorylation

41
Q

two place dopaminergic neurons are concentrated in midbrain

A
  1. The substantia nigra pars compacta that projects to the dorsal striatum via the nigrostraiatal pathway - part of basal ganglia loop and involved in motor control
  2. Ventral tegmental area (VTA) that projects the prefrontal cortex and basal forebrain via mescorticolimbic pathway.
42
Q

pathway of D1 and D5 (D1 like) receptors

A

activate their target cells = increasing levels of cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) = targets of the mesocorticolimbic pathway

43
Q

pathway of D2,3,4 (D2 like) receptors

A

inhibit their target cells = reducing the levels of cAMP = dominate the nigrostriatal pathway

44
Q

where is dopamine converted to noradrenaline

A

By dopamine-b-hydroxylates in noradrenergic cells
concentrated in the pigment Pontine nucleus locus coerleus (LC))

45
Q

what does the locus coerleus regulate

A

working memory, attention, perception, motivation, pain and autonomic reflexes

46
Q

what receptors does noradrenaline act through

A

alpha1, alpha2, beta adrenoreceptors

47
Q

alpha 1 and beta adrenoreceptors

A

postsynaptic sites = excitatory action

48
Q

alpha 2 adrenoreceptors

A

distributed pre and post synaptically and they commonly exert inhibitory effects

49
Q

how is noradrenaline transferred to adrenaline

A

by phenylethanolamine-N-methyltransferase

50
Q

where is adrenaline produced

A

chromaffin cells in the medualla for the adrenal gland and a small number of medullary neurons

51
Q

role of adrenaline

A

Adrenaline is mainly released into the circulation and acts as a hormones on distant targets - regulates - fight or flight response = increases blood flow to muscles - output of the heart - pupil dilation response - blood sugar level
Binds to alpha-AR and beta-AR

52
Q

monoaminergic cells

A

CNS = attention, mood, cognition, memory

53
Q

monoamines

A

essential components of ascending arousal system and modulate level of the behavioural arousal

54
Q

corticospinal tract (pyramidal tract)

A

bundle of axons from the motor cortex of the cerebral cortex through the spinal cord to the skeletal muscle
motor neuron axons

55
Q

what tracks is the corticospinal tract divided into

A

lateral cortical tract (pyramidal lateral tract)
anterior cortical tract (pyramidal anterior tract)

56
Q

where does cerebral cortex flow through

A

cerebral cortex -> brain stem (pyramidal tracts)
Doesn’t pass through the pyramids of the medulla oblongata
Transmits signals from the cerebrum to the motor nuclei (nerve nuclei containing cell bodies of motor neurons) of the cranial nerves in the brainstem (NOT the spinal cord)

57
Q

upper motor neurons

A

cell bodies of motoneurons in corticospinal tract are in the cortical motor cortex
axons of these neurons travel through the brainstem to the Spinal cord (upper motor neuron)

58
Q

lower motor neurons

A

In the anterior horn of spinal cord
axons of the higher motor neurons connects to lower neurons (via interneurons and neuron synapses directly with lower motor neurons)

59
Q

brainstem

A

cell bodies of subordinate motor neurons = in the motor nuclei of cranial nerves

60
Q

cerebrum furrows

A

sulci
lateral sulcus (sulcus sylvianus) and the central sulcus (sulcus centralis) are particularly conspicuous and are important as a guide to the anatomical divisions.

61
Q

cerebrum bulges

A

gyri

62
Q

where is primary motor cortex

A
  • above lateral sulcus and anterior to central sulcus between frontal and parietal
63
Q

role of primary motor cortex

A

voluntary movements of specific body parts associated with the central gyrus.

64
Q

frontal lobe role

A

voluntary movement, expressive language and for managing higher level executive functions.

65
Q

parietal lobe location

A

Above the lateral sulcus, posterior to the central sulcus and anterior to the parieto-occipital sulcus to the angular gyrus

66
Q

parietal lobe role

A

ntegrates sensory information from different sensory modalities.
· particularly responsible for spatial perception and instructional decisions.

67
Q

parietal lobe role

A

ntegrates sensory information from different sensory modalities.
· particularly responsible for spatial perception and instructional decisions.

68
Q

what does parietal lobe consist of

A

parietal lobes comprise the somatosensory cortex and the dorsal cortical visual pathways of the visual system.

69
Q

temporal lobe location

A

Located inferior to the external lateral sulcus and anterior to the angular gyrus, the temporal lobe is one of the cerebral lobes

70
Q

temporal lobe role

A

language, memory and hearing
auditory processing

71
Q

occipital lobe role

A

language, memory and hearing.

72
Q

occipital lobe role

A

visual information
visuospatial formation, colour discrimination and motion perception

73
Q

proprioception vs spinothalamic tracts

A

proprioception (position and vibration) and the spinothalamic tract = warmth and pain ( temperature and pain)

74
Q

roles of basal ganglia in movement

A

inhibits muscle tone throughout the body
supports useful activtity and suppress unwanted or useless patterns of activity
monitors and coordinates slow, sustained contractions = posture and support

75
Q

striatum

A

caudate, putamen, and ventral striatum
Stratum and caudate nucleus = originally one structure (e.g in rodents) but seperated in evolution
The striatum is the input to the cerebral cortex and thalamus

76
Q

subthalamic nucleus

A

inputs from cerebral Cortex

77
Q

globus pallidus

A

· internal and external segment
· internal GP = considered to be a single structure with the substantia nigra reticularis and is an output to the thalamus
Outer GP = indirect pathway passes = nucleus accumbens is a combination of the putamen (striatum) and globus pallidus

78
Q

substantia nigra

A

dense part and reticular part (midbrain)
embryologically and physiologically part of basal ganglia
Reticular area of substanitia nigra - output area
Dense substantia nigra contains many dopaminergic neurons and is a modulatory circuit element projecting to the striatum

79
Q

explain the steps of the direct pathway

A

Neocortex [glutamate] → striatum [GABA] → globus pallidus internus/nigrostriatal area [GABA] → motor thalamic nucleus [glutamate] → motor neocortical area

80
Q

direct pathway causes motor activity to be

A

increased

81
Q

GABAergic neurons

A

inferior segment of the GP and SN
exit of the basal ganglia
fire at high fire and strongly inhibit the activity of neurons in the thalamus

82
Q

steps of the indirect pathway

A

neocortex [glutamate] → striatum [GABA] → extrastriate pallidum [GABA] → subthalamic nucleus [glutamate] → intrastriate pallidum/nigrostriate [GABA] → motor thalamic nucleus [glutamate] → motor neocortical area

83
Q

indirect pathway causes motor inhibition to be

A

reduced

84
Q

what produced dopamine

A

substantia nigra

85
Q

dopamine effect on direct pathway and indirect pathway

A

excited direct pathway via d1
inhibits indirect pathway via d2

86
Q

where are cholinergic interneurons

A

in striatum

87
Q

effect of cholinergic interneurons on direct and indirect pathways

A

inhibits striatal cells of direct
excite striatal cells of indirect

88
Q

cholinergic neurons effect on striatum, nucleus accumbent, SN

A

motor function and motivation

89
Q

cholinergic neurons effect on thalamus

A

arousal

90
Q

Loss of dopaminergic influence results in (PARKINSONS)

A
  • less excitation of direct pathway (normally turns up motor activity)
  • less inhibition of indirect pathway ( normally turns down motor activity)
    Parkinson’s disease
91
Q

why do Parkinson’s patients have smaller substantial nigra

A

Plasticity of substantia nigra very strong - neurochemical level - slows down dopamine transport systems aallowing dopamine to remain longer at chemcial synapses in the striatum

92
Q

Loss of GABAergic cells in striatum that project to the laterl palladium (HUNTINGTONS DISEASE) results in

A

indirect pathway (normally turns down motor activity) inhibited
striatal cholinergic cells = die - normally turn down motor activity

Anatomical sciences (12 decks)

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