BB2 Revision14

Question 1

Define perceptual learning [1]

Answer 1

The ability to learn to recognize stimuli that have been perceived before

Question 2

Name two forms of stimulus response learning [2]

Answer 2

Classical conditioning &Operant conditioning

Question 3

Define relational learning [1]

Answer 3

Complex association of different stimuli to learn something:

• Complex forms of perceptual learning
• Spatial learning
• Observational learning
• Episodic memory

Question 4

Observational learning is a

Relational learning
Motor learning
Perceptual learning
Stimulus response learning

Answer 4

Observational learning is a

Relational learning
Motor learning
Perceptual learning
Stimulus response learning

Question 5

Where is motor information stored? [2]

Answer 5

ventral and dorsal striatum

Question 6

The hippocampus, medial temporal lobe and neocortex is involved with which type of memory

• episodic memory
• semantic memor
• procedural memory (skills and habits)
• classical conditioning

Answer 6

The hippocampus, medial temporal lobe and neocortex is involved with which type of memory

• episodic memory: personal episodes in time and space

Question 7

The amygdala and cerebellum are involved with which type of memory

• episodic memory
• semantic memor
• procedural memory (skills and habits)
• classical conditioning

Answer 7

The amygdala and cerebellum are involved with which type of memory

• episodic memory
• semantic memor
• procedural memory (skills and habits)
• classical conditioning

Question 8

The lateral and anterior temporal cortex, prefrontal cortex are involved with which type of memory?

• episodic memory
• semantic memor
• procedural memory (skills and habits)
• classical conditioning

Answer 8

The lateral and anterior temporal cortex, prefrontal cortex are involved with which type of memory?

• episodic memory
• semantic memory
• procedural memory (skills and habits)
• classical conditioning

Question 9

The striatum, cerebellum and motor cortex are involved with which type of memory?

• episodic memory
• semantic memor
• procedural memory (skills and habits)
• classical conditioning

Answer 9

The striatum, cerebellum and motor cortex are involved with which type of memory?

• episodic memory
• semantic memor
• procedural memory (skills and habits)
• classical conditioning

Question 10

Explain the effect of damage to the hippocampus regarding memories [3]

Answer 10

Results in anterograde amnesia in which where is difficulty in taking new memories and storing them as long term.

Short term memories are not impacted.

Question 11

Information processed by the sensory neocortex provides input to the hippocampus via the

dentate gyrus
perirhinal cortex
parahippocampal gyrus
entorhinal cortex.

Answer 11

Information processed by the sensory neocortex provides input to the hippocampus via the

dentate gyrus
perirhinal cortex
parahippocampal gyrus
entorhinal cortex

Question 12

Describe the pathway of long term memory potentiation in the hippocampus

Answer 12

Input to the hippocampus via the entorhinal cortex

To the granule cells of the dentate gryus

To the pyrimadal cells of CA3 hippocampal region via mossy fibres (neurones in the dentate gyrus)

From CA3 region either goes to:

• via the fornix to the mamillary bodies. Which then connects to anterior nucleus of the thalamus. Projections go back to the cingulate gyrus and entorhinal cortex (AKA Papez’s circuit)

OR

• CA3 axons project to CA1 via schaffer collaterals. The CA1 outputs convey the results of hippocampal processing, via the subiculum, back to the entorhinal cortex and sensory neocortex

Question 13

The projects in the dentate gyrus are called:

Subiculum
Schaffer Collaterals
Mossy fibres
Pyramidal cells
Granule cells

Answer 13

The projects in the dentate gyrus are called:

Subiculum
Schaffer Collaterals
Mossy fibres
Pyramidal cells
Granule cells

Question 14

The projections between CA3 and CA1 in the hippocampus are called

Subiculum
Schaffer Collaterals
Mossy fibres
Pyramidal cells
Granule cells

Answer 14

The projections between CA3 and CA1 in the hippocampus are called

Subiculum
Schaffer Collaterals
Mossy fibres
Pyramidal cells
Granule cells

Question 15

The [] is a pivotal structure positioned between the hippocampus proper (CA1) and entorhinal and other cortices

Subiculum
Schaffer Collaterals
Mossy fibres
Pyramidal cells
Granule cells

Answer 15

The [] is a pivotal structure positioned between the hippocampus proper (CA1) and entorhinal and other cortices

Subiculum
Schaffer Collaterals
Mossy fibres
Pyramidal cells
Granule cells

Question 16

Explain the mechanism behind long-term memory formation [2]

Answer 16

Long-term potentiation (LTP) (persistent increase in synaptic strength)

• Consistent and high frequency stimulation of Schaffer Collaterals (CA3-CA1, after dentate gyrus has been excited) results in EPSP in CA1 neurone.
• Causes LTP: increase in synaptic strength.

Question 17

What is A?

Subiculum
Schaffer Collaterals
Mossy fibres
Pyramidal cells
Perforant pathway

Answer 17

Perforant pathway

Question 18

What is B?

Subiculum
Schaffer Collaterals
Mossy fibres
Pyramidal cells
Perforant pathway

Answer 18

What is B?

Subiculum
Schaffer Collaterals
Mossy fibres
Pyramidal cells
Perforant pathway

Question 19

Which of the following occurs from changes between one sensory system and the motor system

Relational learning
Motor learning
Perceptual learning
Stimulus response learning

Answer 19

Which of the following occurs from changes between one sensory system and the motor system

Relational learning
Motor learning
Perceptual learning
Stimulus response learning

Question 20

Which of the following occurs from changes in one sensory system

Relational learning
Motor learning
Perceptual learning
Stimulus response learning

Answer 20

Which of the following occurs from changes in one sensory system

Relational learning
Motor learning
Perceptual learning
Stimulus response learning

Question 21

Which of the following is learning about the relationship among individual stimuli

Relational learning
Motor learning
Perceptual learning
Stimulus response learning

Answer 21

Which of the following is learning about the relationship among individual stimuli

Relational learning
Motor learning
Perceptual learning
Stimulus response learning

Question 22

Explain the three major stages that sustain learning and memory:

Encoding [2]
Storage [1]
Retrieval [1]

Answer 22

Encoding:
* Acquisition: Sensory stimuli make the cut into-short-term memory
* Consolidation Changes in the brain stabilize memory over time, resulting in long-term memory
Creates a stronger representation over time

Storage:
* Represents the permanent record of the information

Retrieval
* accessing the stored information & using it to create a conscious representation or execute a learned behaviour

Question 23

Very short term memory: sensory memory

Explain the two types of very short term sensory memory [2]

Answer 23

Echoic:
* short-lived persistence of the auditory sensory memory trace
* The auditory information just presented to you persists as a sort of echo in your head
* If you try to retrieve it quickly enough, it is still present and can be used

Iconic memory
* Short-lived persistence of the visual sensory memory trace

Question 24

Very short term memory: sensory memory

How long do iconic and echoic memory last for? [2]

Answer 24

Echoic: The neural trace of an auditory stimulus is around 10 sec

Iconic memory: The neural trace of a visual stimulus is only 300 to 500 msec

Question 25

Where is the central executive processor in the brain? [1]

Answer 25

**prefrontal cortex**

Question 26

Describe the pathway of long term memory potentiation in the hippocampus

Answer 26

Input to the **hippocampus** via the **entorhinal cortex** To the **granule cells** of the **dentate gryus** To the **pyrimadal cells of CA3** hippocampal region via **mossy fibres** (neurones in the dentate gyrus) From CA3 region either goes to: - via the **fornix** to the **mamillary bodies**. Which then connects to **anterior nucleus of the thalamus**. Projections go back to the cingulate gyrus and entorhinal cortex (AKA Papez's circuit) OR - **CA3 axons** project to **CA1** via **schaffer collaterals**. The **CA1** outputs convey the results of hippocampal processing, via the subiculum, back to the **entorhinal cortex and sensory neocortex**

Question 27

Explain the difference in structure between AMPA and NMDA glutamate receptors [2]

Answer 27

**NMDA:** * At normal resting membrane potentials are blocked by Mg2+ * Depolarisation of NMDA causes **release of Mg2+** and **unblocks the channel** * Glutamate can enter channel and Ca2+ influxes * **Ca2+ or Na+ can influx** **AMPA**: * Opens in response to released glutamate and allow **influx of Na+**, which depolarises the neuron and produces an EPSP * Can depolarise NMDA

Question 28

# LTP Explain the synaptic changes that underlie simple forms of learning

Answer 28

1. Activation of synapses 2. Depolarization of the post-synaptic neuron 3. NMDA receptors **release Ca2+** (which can be triggered by activation via AMPA receptors on NDMA)

Question 29

# LTP Explain the difference between high frequency LTP occurs once versus iif high frequency input is repeated a few times

Answer 29

**High frequency LTP repeated once:** * LTP lasts approx. 3 hours and **decays**. * This transient, early LTP is **not dependent on protein synthesis** **High frequency LTP repeated many times**: * Form of **late** **LTP** occurs that lasts for **approx. 24 hours** * **Dependent** on **protein synthesis.** * Requires **Ca2**+ to activate a cascade of enzymes via **cyclic AMP**

Question 30

# Long-term potentiation (LTP) State the changes that occur pre-synaptically with LTP: In early LTP [1] In late LTP [1]

Answer 30

Early LTP: ncrease in the **amount** of **glutamate** released by the terminal buttons In late LTP, an **increased** **number** of **release sites** increases the amount of glutamate released

Question 31

State the changes that occur post-synaptically with LTP [2]

Answer 31

Changes in the size and shape of dendritic spines Growth of new dendritic spines

Question 32

Why do we need long term depression of memories?

Answer 32

All active synapses would end up being strong. As a necessary balance to learning-enhanced activity, there is also activity dependent long term depression

Question 33

Explain the mechanism of long term depression of memory [1] | (In hippocampus)

Answer 33

Hippocampus: where low-frequency long period stimulation depresses the EPSP for several hours. * Involves a decrease in the number of AMPA receptors

Question 34

Explain the difference in neural connections between early memory consolidation and late consolidation [3]

Answer 34

Connections between the hippocampus and various cortical modules are critical in early memory formation Over time, the cortical modules form connections among themselves and the connections with the hippocampus become less important When the memory is fully consolidated, only the cortical to cortical connections are important and the hippocampus becomes unnecessary The retrieval cue accesses the memory directly from the cortical to cortical network of connections that form the unified representation of the memory

Question 35

Which area of the brain undergoes lesions to cause working memory loss? Temporal Frontal Occipital Parietal

Answer 35

Which area of the brain undergoes lesions to cause working memory loss? Temporal **Frontal** Occipital Parietal

Question 36

Which area of the brain undergoes lesions to cause long term memory loss? Temporal Frontal Occipital Parietal

Answer 36

Which area of the brain undergoes lesions to cause long term memory loss? **Temporal** Frontal Occipital Parietal

Question 37

# Working memory (aka short term memory) What is the name for the area that controls short term memory? [1]

Answer 37

Central executive [1]

Question 38

# Working memory Name and describe the inputs to the central execuative? [2]

Answer 38

**Visuospatial sketchpad**: a store for visual and spatial information. **Phonological loop**: is a temporary store for verbal information and speech- holds thoughts in a speech-based form for 1-2 seconds.

Question 39

A patient presents with inability to recall lists told to him is likely caused by a lesion in which of the following? Visuospatial sketchpad Phonological loop **Where in the brain would this lesion be? [1]**

Answer 39

**Phonological loop**: left posterior parietal lesion

Question 40

Lesions impacting the visuospatial working memory would occur from which regions of the brain? [2]

Answer 40

Left AND Right **Anterior occipital cortex**: Broadmann area 19 **Inferior posterior parietal lobe** Supramarginal gyrus (Broadmann area 40)

Question 41

# Working memory Label A-E

Answer 41