Beliefs Flashcards
(221 cards)
1
Q
Ideology
A
a system of ideals & ideas esp 1 forming the basis of Econ / pol theory & policy
2
Q
Characteristics of Ideology
A
must have power over cognition
must be capable of guiding ones eval
must provide guidance towards actions
must be logically coherent
3
Q
Examples of Ideology
A
socialism
communism
democracy
totalitarianism
4
Q
Marxist Interp of Ideology
A
system of falsehoods used by RC as means of staying in power
justify cap prins & prevent pro rev
neg view of ideologies
prevents rev - prol dont understand exploitive nature of cap - makes them think it is fair & that wealthy have worked hard for their wealth
5
Q
Structure of Human Society
A
super structure - everything to do w/ prod in soc - edu fam media relic pol - perpetuate ideology of cap through ideo control - maintains and legitimates base
base - all needed to prod - machines f’s land raw material = ppls relas to prod - shapes super structure
6
Q
Evaluating Marxist View of Ideology
A
M could have played same role in SU & other Com countries
some neo marxists suggest idea that we dont know own mind = pat & disempower - many fems take same view women are brainwashed by patriarchy - suggestion that I leads to false consciousness = convenient explanation for not being able to persuade of argument strength
suggestion is trad M that = 1 ideo neo - marxism = dom ideo & = other comp sets of ideas can be developed to op bour
7
Q
Karl Popper
A
can’t study ideologies scientifically = unfalsifiable if express contentedness how could this be scientifically shown as false consciousness
8
Q
Radical Feminists & Ideology
A
common view = patriarchal ideology maintains Dom view of men in soc
according to rad fems 1 way can be achieved is convincing women that patriarchy = natural normal & desirable = sim to false consciousness
9
Q
Similarities between Ideology & Religion
A
both give sense to life - salvation in next world for relig happiness & human fulfilment for ideologies
both claim to hold the truth
some claim religion = sub group of ideologies
10
Q
Differences between Ideology & Religion
A
religion = concerned w/ divine - ideos w/ world
religion emph faith & worship - appeal inwardness & aim = redemption / purification of human spirit - ideology speaks to group, nation / class
11
Q
Differences between Science & Ideology
A
Reflects dif Soc conditions behind prod of 2 types of knowledge
Prod of sci knowledge = regulated by scientific rules eg logic of experimental method & empirical refs & animated by depressive attitude ( I am responsible for matters w/in confines of rules set by research com)
Propositions of ideology = anti empirical & shy away from counter examples are confusions & underpinned by a potentially maniacal & omnipotent attitude
12
Q
Religion
A
Closed belief system that claims the monopoly on the truth & accepts no criticism / opportunity for development
Based on doctrine & to challenge that = sacrilege / blasphemy
13
Q
Science
A
An open belief system which constantly opens itself up for criticism & testing & constantly seeks to discover new knowledge
Is value free, objective, unbiased & rigorous = based in empirical evidence facts tested by experiments rather than being based on faith
14
Q
Substantive Definition of Religion
A
Tylor (1903) ‘ belief in spiritual beings’
Max Weber (1905) seeing it as a belief in a super natural power that = unable to be scientifically explained - whether belief can be considered relig depends on substance of what is believed - requires belief in God/s
Criticised for ignoring relig pracs - things ppl do to show belief
15
Q
Problems w/ Substantive Definitions
A
How do we decide which belief should / not be seen as relig eg should belief in magic = relig
Provides v broad understanding of relig
16
Q
Functional Definitions
A
State what relig actually does
D’s def has an element of func talks about commun
Relig needs to be defined by contrib to society as it is considered a product of Soc bc of this these definitions are sometimes assoc w/ func func pov
17
Q
Durkheim (1915)
A
‘A unified system of beliefs & pracs relative to sacred things & that is to say things set apart & forbidden - beliefs & pracs which unite into one single moral community called a church all those who adhere to them’
Focuses on relig as group activity
Talks about the way certain symbols are given sacred power & regarded in awe & assoc w/ rituals eg cross
18
Q
Yinger (1970)
A
‘Relig = system of beliefs & pracs by means of which a group of ppl struggles w/ the ultimate problems of human life’
A belief / org could provide certain fun’s eg encourage social cohesion & col conscience - w/o nec inclu supernatural eg could football be considered a relig?
19
Q
Advantages of Functional Definitions
A
= inclusive allow wide range of beliefs & pracs eg encour social cohesion
Don’t specify belief in gods/ supernatural = no bias against non western relig eg Buddhism
20
Q
Problems w/ Functional Definitions
A
= too broad belief systems that = specifically anti relig could = inclu eg interests in football music lives of celebs - Scharf (1970)
Assume relig plays useful role in Soc & contribs to social stability can = consid as a relig w/o evidence
21
Q
Polythetic Definitions
A
Idens number of overlapping factors m religs share
To qualify as relig set of beliefs needs to exhibit a num of these factors but not all
Avoids some of probs of other approaches - doesn’t attempt to draw clear line between relig & non relig
22
Q
Southwold (1974)
A
A concern for god like beings
A concern w/ the sacred
A focus on salvation
Rituals & pracs
Beliefs based on faith
Link w/ moral commun - church
An ethical code
Supernatural sanctions
Mythology
Sacred texts / oral trade
Priests / relig elites
23
Q
Problems w/ Polythetic Definitions
A
Not clear how many facs need to be shared to be a relig
Decision of what to include in list itself = mater of judgement
24
Q
Social Constructionist Definitions
A
Some socios believe relig = social construct that = created by man not supernatural beings eg interpretivists believe relig = defined by each individual while Marxists believe = created by bour ti repress prol - serves cap
25
Giddens (2006)
‘Religs involve a set of symbols, invoking feelings of reverence / awe & = linked to rituals / ceremonies engaged in by a community of believers’
26
Problems w/ defining Religion
No def all socios agree on
Means measuring relig = dif therefore hard to measure whether secularisation has occurred / not
27
Theistic Religions
Centre around belief in sacred, higher & controlling power = source of moral codes
Monotheistic = 1 divine power
Polytheistic = num of separate gods
28
Differences between Science & Religion
Science = open belief system comp to religion
Relig based in faith science based on direct observation
Whilst relig requires belief often in supernatural - science requires falsification
29
Totemism
Totems = animals / plants that are believed to possess supernatural power
= relig form common to smaller socs - each group w/in Soc may have totem assoc w/ ceremonies
May not be as foreign to Western minds as expected - school mascots symbols & emblems
30
Animism
Belief in ghosts / spirits / angels & demons that inhabit earth & positively / negatively interact & influence humans
Malevolent spirits cause demonic possession, insanity, disapproved behav
Treating unsanc actions by praying to good forces & exorcising evil ones
Not limited to small simple pre indust Soc various USAs in 1990s believed in supernatural entities that influ humans
31
Functionalist View of Religion
Religion is a vital institution for maintaining social cohesion & solidarity
32
The Sacred & The Profane
One of the main purposes of relig is to differentiate between the sacred (things that are special because they are the product of of a higher / super natural power) and the profane (things that are ordinary average and have no special meaning / purpose)
33
Durkheim & the Totem
Suggests the totem is sacred bc it symbolises the group itself - stands for the values of the community - means worshipping Soc
D argues relig = rarely a matter of individual belief - involves collective worship w/ ceremonies & rituals
Throughout group exper in indus = able to recog the divine influ of god and moral guidelines they provide
34
Collective Conscience
Sacred symbols represent the socs col con which = shared norms, values, beliefs & knowledge that make social living possible,
Believed regular relig rituals reinforce the col con & maintain Soc integration reminding ppl that they share common values & moral outlook to which they owe loyalty - helps ppl feel part of something bigger
35
Cognitive Functions
D believe relig was the origin of concepts & categories we need for reasoning understanding the world & communication
Argues ppl need concepts such as time space cause substance & number to make sense of the world and that we need to share these concepts w/ others to communicate effectively
36
Arunta Aboriginal Tribe
Conducted study to establish funcs of beliefs & ceremonies & what it really signified
Delib chose what he considered a primitive relig to focus on Essen elements of belief & its function - argued Soc divided objects & activities into the sacred & the profane
37
Discipline
Relig rituals impose self discipline - encour indus to behave sociably & not just follow own selfish course of action - would be anti social & destabilising
38
Cohesion
Key func in social cohesion - worship brought community together through worship ppl reaffirm & reinforce the bonds that keep them together
39
Vitalising
Relig belief maintained trad ensuring the values are passed down from gen to gen = vital
40
Euphoric
If mems of Soc = frustrated / lose faith relig reminds them of their place in something bigger - prevents induviduals = anti social
41
Bellah Civil Religion
In mod sec states ppl worship Soc - still based around symbols but X super Nat whilst might not fit most defs of relig performs same func D identified
Americanism - flag - loyalty to nation state - pledge of allegiance & royal family - death of Diana - unites ppl
42
Malinowski Psychological Functions
Relig helps ppl cope w/ emo stress which could undermine Soc solidarity
Where outcome = NB & uncontrollable eg Trobriand tribe fish in lagoon = safe no relig peace but did when in dangerous waters
Also used in times of life crisis - major life events such as birth, death marriage & puberty can cause Maj disruption & relig serves to minimise that disruption through rituals - funerals reinforce solidarity amount the survivors and gives comfort to the bereaved
43
Parsons Value & Meaning
Helps ppl cope w/ unforeseen situs & uncontrollable outcomes = 2 essential funcs:
1. Creates & legitimates societies central values by sacralising them - promotes value consensus
2. = primary source of meaning by trying to answer the ultimate questions about the human condition such as why ppl suffer - enables ppl to make sense of these vents & helps maintain stability
44
Evaluation of Functionalism
Church attendance has dec meaning = dif to see how relig can be func to socialise if only minority attend
most analysis based on idea soc has 1 relig = multi
idea religion can be seen as worship of soc = idea that = col but faith can be expressed dif & indu
analysis based on flawed evidence - D didn't understand T / behav of tribe
religion can have neg effect - many conflicts bc of relig
45
Marxist Perspective
"it is the opium of the ppl"
= conserv force - primary function = reproduce, maintain & justify class inequals = ISA serving Bour interests
46
Opium of the masses
dulls pain of exploitation & = temp high through promises of better afterlife to distract from exploitation
gives distorted world view no solus to suffering
47
Legitimates Inequality
| Religion as an Ideology
suggests poor suffering = inevitable & god given - religion misleads into believing will be rewarded in next life - camel through needle
48
Legitimates the power of the Ruling Class
| Religion as an Ideology
religion teachings encour idea soc = org by gods will
49
Spiritual Gin - Lenin
| Religion as an Ideology
religion doled out to masses by rich & powerful to keep order - keeps confused & in place
L believed used to manip & prevent overthrowing ruling class - obscures reality
50
Suffering as a test of faith
makes virtue out of suffering - make poor seem more godly - camel
51
Existential Security
can offer hope of supernatural intervention to solve probs - makes it seem useless to try improve situ
52
Promises Afterlife
gives something to look forward to - easier to put up with misery
53
Engels (1975)
'the history of Christianity has notable points of resemblense w/ the mod WC movement. Like the latter Christianity was originally a movement of oppressed ppl'
54
Halvey (1927)
| Supporters of Marxist View
methodist relig played key role in preventing WC rev in C19 m other Eur nations exper some attempt at soc change not GB - expressed by disserting CofE for Meth = distracted from class grievences - inhib maj soc change & upheaval
55
Leech
| Supporters of Marxist View
critical of CofE bc recruits from UC base = extremely wealthy - lost contact w/ ordinary ppl should be doing m to = accessible
56
Hook (1990)
| Supporters of Marxist View
pope has v conserv views on contraception, abortion, homosexuality, & female priests - shared by predessessor - stance on contraception = causing issues in less developed areas
wealth of ch should do m to tackle world pov
57
Religion in US
| Supporters of Marxist View
used to sup dom groups - fundamentalist relig sup conservative & anti-com values - often suggest wealth & prosperity = god's favour while poverty, illness & homosexuality are indicators of sin
58
Secularisation
surely the ideological power of religion is undermined by fact that fewer than 10% of ppl attend ch - doesn't consider
59
Criticisms of Marxist Approach
failed to explain existence of relig where it does not appear to contrib to oppression of a particular class
some religion movements have brought about radical soc change & helped remove ruling class - can legit radical ideas as well as conservative ones
Neo marxists recog the way religion is sometimes used as the only means to oppose the ruling class
60
Feminist Views on Religion
soc = patriarchal - based on male dom - many fems regard relig as patri institu - refelcts & perpetuates inequal
funcs as patri ideology that legitimates female subordination
61
Male Dominated
even tho women often participate m than men in religion orgs = male dom
eg orthodox judaism & Cath forbid female rabbis / priests
62
Karen Armstrong (1993)
sees exclusion from priesthood as evidence of women's marginalisation
63
Restricted Participation
places of worship often segregated - women behind screens - men in m central & sacred spaces
female participation restricted - may not be able to preach / read from sacred text
taboos - menstruation, preg & childbirth as polluting prevent partic - Islam menstruating women not allowed to touch the Quran
64
Jean Holm (2001)
restricted female participation = devaluation of women in religion
65
Anti-Female Stereotypes
sacred texts = mainly male gods, prophets - written & interp by men
stories often reflect anti-fem stereotypes - Eve - caused humanities fall from grace & expulsion from GofE
66
Fewer Rights
religion laws & customs may give women lesser rights than men - access to divorce, how many spouses, dress codes & decision making
influs cul norms may lead to unequal treatment - gen mutilation / punishments for sexual transgressions
many religs legit & regulate women's trad dom & reprod roles - cath bans abortion & artificial reprod
67
Woodhead (2002)
exclusion of women from cath priesthood = evidence of Ch's deep unease about emancipation of women gen
68
Not always subordinate
Armstrong (1993) - early relig often placed women at centre - earth mother godess, fertility cults, & female priesthoods in middle east until about 6000 yrs ago
from about 4000 yrs ago = rise of monotheistic religs - estab of single all powerful male god & male prophets
69
El Saadawi (1980)
| Fem Evaluation
religion not cause of subord = result of partriachal forms of soc in last 1000yrs - reshaped & influ religion- men reinterp religion beliefs to fav patri - religion contributes to oppression sees inc monothesism as legit power of men
70
Woodhead (2009)
| Fem Evaluation
crit fem explans that equate religion w/ patri & oppression of women - accepts trad religion = patri but not all some relig fem - can use to gain freedom & respect - Hjab some wear as symbol of liberation
71
Gilliat - Ray (2010)
some brit muslim women chose to wear hjab to gain parental approval to enter futher edu & employ where = previously problematic = symbol of liberation allows into public sphere
72
David Lyon
| Postmodernism
Jesus in Disneyland (2001) - relig = disembedded in post-mod soc - no longer embedded in relig orgs / a particular country/cul - beliefs not in original context
pick & mix belief systems
relig appearing in unexpected places eg Disney - relig becomes matter of choice - shouldn't be viewed in terms of obligation but in consumption
73
Holistic Milieu
| Postmodernism
consump of relig fits w/ idea of holistic milieu & nature of New Age relig movements
= increasing - companies sell spirituality as a commodity
tech = maj factor - internet has taken relig out of churches - now TV & websites - allows it to become m privitised - relates to Davie's ideas about ppl 'believing w/o belonging'
74
Implications for Metanarratives
| Postmodernism
ideas about changes to relig have impact on funcs described by Func, M & Fem
if relig not about a shared set of beliefs = private indu beliefs then cannot lead to col con
if relig = about meeting needs & wants as a product to = consumed rather than putting obligations on believers then won't ensure discipline & control
ppl worshipping an individualised privatised relig are not worshiping soc
75
Source of Identity
| Postmodernism
where other sources of iden = breaking down - nationality, gender, class, ethnicity, sexuality = fluid & fragmen - relig can = source of iden - can = primary func
= never consid by D/M bc socs were assumed where m = relig & = same relig
now = diverse, pluralistic & globalised soc - relig new role = source of iden
76
Lyotard - Monopoly of Truth
| Postmodernism
rejects metanarratives - macro mod theories like M & scientific theories - meaning relig = another narrative
to undermine & minimise relig = a challenge to secularisation theory - says relig truths are as true as scientific ones
the idea ppl can chose their own truths = another factor in resacrilisation of soc
77
Bauman
| Postmodernism
in modernity ppl = looking for universal truths but in post - modernity ppl would find the belief / theory / truth that helped them at the time in that place
78
Berger
| Postmodernism
fits w/ Bauman - idea socios need to practice m reflexivity in study of relig
researchers own beliefs / absence of relig beliefs must be reflected on when consid relig in contemp soc
argued lack of reflexivity few secularisation theory bc socios in uni departments were in sec universe & assumed everyone else was too
79
Sociology = Ethnocentric
| Evaluation of Postmodernism
Berger = correct that sec theory = eurocentric & relig = growing in other parts of world
post-mod socios neglect for these relig ppl relig is still mainly trad & doing trad funcs
eg Islam not disembedded in Islamic world from mosque/ trad context - same for many Christians in Africa & Latin America - some argue sec thoery = wrong bc relig has stayed the same in many areas
80
Lyon Overstates Internet NBance
| Evaluation of Postmodernism
whilst Televengelism & Youtube preachers = example of relig changing NBance could = overstated - m will still go to church - marketed to relig audience
like public address systems created bigger congregations & bigger churches being addressed - mod tech extends reach of relig message - doesn't necessarily change fundmental nature of the message/meaning to audience
81
Evaluation of Postmodernism
= evidence in western liberal democs sec theory = accurate
although = inc in New Age movements don't challenge the pop of maj religs / atheism - many who consume = happy to consider selves christian / non relig
those 'believing w/o belonging' & worshipping vicariously through professional clergy might as well not really believe much at all - Bruce
82
Religion as a Conservative Force
relig = trad & upholds trad customs & beliefs - preserves status quo
relig = force for stability & order - favour func / Marxist POV
against div, homosexual relas, contraception & abortion
83
Functionalism
| Religion as a Conservative Force
religion & consensus
maintains soc stability, solidarity, & VC
outlet for stress - so don't disrupt soc
84
Marxism
| Religion as a Conservative Force
religion & cap
prevents soc change for powerful
legits & repros inequal
85
Feminism
| Religion as a Conservative Force
religion & patri
relig = ideology that legits patri power & maintains women's subord
86
Religion as a Force for Social Change
point to role of relig in encour soc to change - may be influ by writings of Max Weber
87
Theodicies
relig ideas that explain fundmental questions about the nature of existence
all have soc consequences
88
Berger 1967
sacred canopy - dif relig theodices enabling ppl to make sense of & come to terms w/ world
some encour change
89
Examples of Theodices
in many Western religs = belief suffering = rewards in afterlife
Hinduism & reincarnation - living right will lead to better future life on earth
90
Predestination
calvin preached God predecided who would enter heaven b4 = born = final & unchangeable - the chosen = the elect
91
Divine Transcendence
no indu has power to rival God & be able to predict his wishes - only souce of info = Bible
gives rise to loneliness w/ predes causes salvation panic
92
Asceticism
abstinence, self discipline, self denial
life simple life as Jesus did
93
Vocation / Calling
other world A = calling to serve God - monks - used to be only calling
this world A - work to glorify God's name through mythological work in soc - idleness = sin, no luxury, long working hours
94
Functions of Vocation/Calling
1. allowed cals to cope w/ salvation panic
2. reinforced gains of m wealth - spirit of mod cap
95
Calvinism Led to Capitalism
cals became anxious about being part of elect so devoted selves to work - aquired wealth - would take as sign of God's fav - could mean = part of the elect - reinvest into businesses which then grew - leading to spirit of cap in which pursuit of prof = spiritual goal
96
Hinduism & Confucianism
other socs had higher rate of econ growth than N Eur in C16&17 but X = cap
china & india = m materially advanced - didn't adopt cap due to lack of relig belief like cal - promoted rewards in other life
97
Evaluation of Weber
some commentators have said slavery, colonialism & piracy = m NB in accumulating cap needed for indust
some coutries w/ large cal pop didn't indust - Norway
98
Parkin
| Evaluation of Weber
cap late to develop in Scot despite Cal being present there
99
Kautsky
| Evaluation of Weber
weber overstimates ideas & underestimates econ factors
cap predates cal - early caps = attracted to cal bc made their interests seem legit
100
Marshall
| Evaluation of Weber
points out Weber did not claim that cal caused cap just that it = maj contrib
101
American Civil Rights Movement
Bruce = religion motiv soc change
campaigning involv direct action - marches, boycotts
Black clergy played major roles in role -Martin Luther King - gave moral legit to acitivists - provided sanctury & unity - appealed to common christian values of equality
helped relig get involved w/ sec struggle & cause change
102
Taking Moral High Ground
| Bruce Religion as an ideological resource
pointing out hypocrisy & having moral indignation about powerfuls behav
103
Channelling Dissent
| Bruce Religion as an ideological resource
religion provides channels to express pol dissent in safe proteced way
104
Acting as Honest Broker
| Bruce Religion as an ideological resource
ch's can provide context for negotiating change bc often have respect of both sides - seen as above pol - can hold positions which allow nego
105
Mobilising Public Opinion
| Bruce Religion as an ideological resource
Ch's act as a network to spread support for the campaign
106
New Christian Right
prot fundems - op lib soc - want US 'back to God'
want abortion, homo, div = illegal & ban SRE in schools
want trad fam & gender roles - linked to rep party
use media & teleevans to make converts & recruit new mems - new moral maj formed as pressure group
107
New Christian Right Success
largely unsuc - only 15% of pop not moral maj
find dif to coop w/ other relig groups
= oppositional groups - pro choice
108
Bruce & New Christian Right
failed movement for soc change - didn't connect w/ mainstream beliefs about democ, equality & freedom - CRM did
109
Marxism, Religion & Change
recog relig ideas can have relative auton - can be partly indepen from econ base - sometimes force for change
M thinks relig has humanised a world that exploitation has made inhumane
Engels - inhibits change but can challenge status quo & soc change
Bloch - can inspire protest & rebellion = expres of 'principal of hope' - shows how the world can be better & how to achieve
110
Liberation Theology
1960s cath priests in latin US op mili dict to help poor = inc rural pov, HR abuses & commitments of priests to ideology to sup HR & poor - harboured freedom fighters
1980s reversed - said too marxist - lost influ - m = democs
111
Neo Marxist View on Religion
talk about apparent indepen of cul institus / rela auton
argue = m effective as RC not directly involv = indepen but econ power of RC will always control
112
Antonio Gramsci 1971
aware ch sups RC interests - didn't think = inevi
argued relig beliefs & pracs could develop - support & guide challenges to RC - ch not directly under control
112
Otto Manduro
relig can be rev force - relig ideas rad clergy in fight for p's & w's
in situ where no other outlet for greivances clergy could give guidance to oppress
112
Lowry
questions Marx's view relig always legits soc inequal
other M's agree can bring about soc change - depends on definition of soc change
113
Millenarian Movements
example of desire to change things on earth & bring about kingdom of God - expect imminent trans of world by supernat - will be saved & in Utopia - Worsley
worked well among poor exploited groups esp colonies - united tribal movements
used trad christian beliefs
= precurver to pol movements to overthrow col rule - 1st awakening of prol self con
114
Gramsci - Religion & Hegemony
interested in ISAs & how gov use to control
gow have pop consent to rule - no need for coercion
Cath ch helped mussolini win support
hegemony X always guaranteed - WC can develop counter hegemony
115
Dual Character
| Neo Marxism
can challenge as well as sup RC
offers vision of what can be
leaders up WC orgs - TUs
116
Religion & Class Conflict
Billings - comp Coalminers & Textile w's - cms = m militant & forceful t's m accepting & passive - relig can = NB in effecting class struggle - cms - hymns kept moral high
need leadership, org & support
117
Dual Character & Hinduism
for gens used as conserv force - caste system - Indian soc = divided into immobile soc classes by birth
but inspired huge soc change in Indian Nationalist Movement - prins of non-violence & self renunciation in ghandis camp against Brit Emp
118
Factors determining if religion promotes social change
1. beliefs
2. culture
3. social location
4. internal & external org
119
Reactionary Nature of Religions
involves idea of using relig to avoid westernisation
= opposed to what they consider the undesirable state of modern soc
Christian & Islamic fundems reflect this
120
Islam & Westernisation
for islamic fundems relig provides basis for resistance against westernisation
Iran & Afganistan & Gaddafi & Libya 1969
121
Almond (2003)
| Islam & Westernisation
defined fund as "pattern of religion militancy" led by "self styled true believers" & iden their cause as being directly opposed to securalisation
122
Giddens
| Islam & Westernisation
globalisation has caused sig levels of insecurity - relig offers v simple answers - have clear rules & absolute truths = v attractive
123
Fundamentalist Religion
relig texts = taken literally & provide strict set of rules ppl should live by - clashes w/ norm of soc = pol & highly conserv - proposes soc change - want conserv & trad soc eg NCR
124
Social Change & Conflict
'clash of civilisations" = thesis ppls cul & relig idens will be primary source of conflict in post cold war soc
125
Huntington
| Social Change & Conflict
future wars between culs X countries
critics argue = unfairon maj = v few involved in conflict - ignores conflicts w/in civs - caths & prots
126
Impact of Social Change on Religion
growth of western cap - promotes western values - sci & rational thinking in work processes
inc use of tech - Lyon - online relig - tech used to fulfill spiritual needs
movements toward post mod = inc fund & renewal of relig pracs / reject metanarratives
migration = cul transition - Bruce - migrants look for familiar
development of global cul - spiritual shopping - Leger - greater choice of belief system
127
Norris & Inglehardt
| Impact of Social Change on Religion
existential theory - ppl who feel insecure m likely to turn to relig = inc risk to global security
128
Positive Impacts of Social Change on Religion
as LGBTQ+ communication advocates for basic civil rights relig groups move closer to respecting HRs - women seen as equal
Episocopal Ch in US declared 2015 cler could preside over same sex mars - 2020 Bishop in NY dismissed for prohibition = some op
Pope Francis - homosex tendens 'not a sin' - parents shouldn't throw children out = rev for caths
US Jewish denoms gen recog & bless same sex mars & other religs - Hinudism = welcoming
129
Urbanisation & Globalisation
have changed nature of beliefs
glo - led to multi cul soc - many ppl w/ diverse relig in same area
m sec - religion has less influ
dec in relig in public sphere - new ways to worship - TV
130
Social Change & New Religious Organisations
meth ch = partly result of industrial rev - ppl lost communs - migrated to city - meth meetings gave commun - appealed to WC
131
Wallis (1984)
= 3 types of New Relig Movements
growth of these thought to be bc of uncertainties caused by social change
132
World Rejecting Movements
| Wallis (1984)
require total commitment & cutting selves off from soc - unification ch
highly critical of soc & seek radical change - control all aspects of lives = conserv moral codes - rules on sex
133
World Affirming Movements
| Wallis (1984)
m like self help/therapy groups = tol of other religs - transcendental meditation
may lack conven features of religs eg col worship - some not highly org - give followers access to spiritual/ supernatural powers - accept world as is = optimistic
non exclusive m = cults - followers = customers / members - entry via training can live normal life
134
World Acommodating Movements
| Wallis (1984)
m trad (pentecostalism)
lead conven lives = break aways from existing chs / denoms who are focused on relig matters - seek to restore spiritual purity
neither accept / reject world - tolerate it
135
Marginality
| Uncertainties of Social Change
inequality, immigration, racism, may marg some groups so NRMs help ppl make sense of of situ & promise hope in life after death- Weber called this theodicy of dispriviledge
136
Relative Deprivation
| Uncertainties of Social Change
why ppl from white MC backgrounds join NRMs - see selves as deprived comp to peers
137
Modernity & Post-modernity
| Uncertainties of Social Change
alienation of cap inc beaurc & disillusionment w/ work creates uncertainty - choice ppl have in constructing iden - creates uncertainty & crisis of iden
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Different Types of Religious Organisation
1st socio typology of Chs = Weber - def between ch & sects - Chs = large orgs & sects = small ones
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Church
| Troeltsch Typology
claim monopoly over truth = true other relig = false
= closely connected to state - countries may have offic / state relig - UK King = head of state & ch & Bishops sit in HOL - sim to Iran & SA w/ Islam
have heirarchical bureaucratic structure = clear lines of seniority in paid cler
despite rules place few demands on mems - can fit around life = accessible
= conserv orgs defend status quo - seek to be open & universal but = attractive to UC
= born into not expected to prove faith eg Roman Cath
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Sects
| Troeltsch Typology
orgs that have broken away from ch through schism bc dissat w/ teachings/pracs
claim monop of truth - hostile to other relig orgs, state & mainstream soc (Wallis called world rejecting) - no complex bureau hier = charasmatic leader = small
demand total commitment - not accessible w/o sig sac
often marginalised deprived groups, low incomes EMs
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Sect Examples
Jim Jones - The People's Temple
David Koresh's Branch of Davidians
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Rise & Fall of Sects
T uses the term to refer to small christian orgs like early meths, baptists & Cals - overtime moved mainstream - Niebuhr called denoms
grow quickly if = charas leader - can decline quickly if built around leader - if make predictions & then don't come true
if survive & grow = likely to lose charas of sect & become m formal establishment & respectable = life cycle of a sect - suggests won't last m than one gen - either die / = denom
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Denominations
Niebuhr recog that sects change overtime becoming m formal & ch like = denom
not closely connected w/ state & will comment & camp on soc issues
membership = bigger than sect - smaller than ch
have some heir & bureauc
don't claim MoT eg Methodists, Baptists
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Evalutation of Different Religious Organisations
reality doesn't quite fit with theory of typology - many relig orgs have charas of multi types & can change overtime eg RC in Italy = dom estab religion = CH in UK = m like a denom
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Bruce (1995)
questions if Troeltsch's typology for Ch applies to contemp soc - in mod W socs have relig pluralism - harder to claim MoT - CofE not always conserv force - takes crit pos on gov pols & camps for change - relig pluralism has led to decline in CH's but inc in other relig orgs
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Ronald Robertson
inc disagreements between estab chs & govs bc of secularisation - govs = less concerned about attitudes of Chs & also as consequence of globalisation
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Further Evaluation of Different Religious Organisations
mod W socs it is less usual for m ppl to belong to Ch - UK CofE = established ch but less than 1 mil = active mems
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New Religious Movements
= pop since 1960s eg Unification Ch
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Sects & Cults
| Stark & Bainbridge
both = at conflict w/ wider world
sects result from schisms - splits in existing orgs - break away from chs over disagrees over doctrines
offer other worldly bens - place in heaven to those suffering marg/depri
cults = new religs - scientology / ones imported from other culs - offer world bens - health to richer ppl suffering from normlessness (psychic depri) / orgasmic depri - health probs
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Audience Cults
religion & spiritual movements as if = businesses - ptps = clients - passive comsumer - attend lectures/ read books to hear message - no necessary ongoing rela/ expects
scientology began like this
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Client Cult
has rela w/ adherents - dr/patient rela = service provider & enter prolonged rela like therapy - choose when, how often/ long wish to ptp
scientology developed from this is CM = form of psych therapy
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Cult Movement
not just one service - looks to fulfill all spiritual needs m like trad ch/denom/sect rela w/ clients m like mems of congregation - iden selves as mem of group & a believer = wide range of orgs w/ some expecting m commitment than others
scientology now CM
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New Age Movements
became dom 1980s - focus = developing spirituality through belief system
not as org as mainstream religion- can affect lifespan of movement
often collect mems through pop media sources & seminars - makes ppl aware - enables mems to learn guidelines as group/indu on how can develop spirituality further
eg paganism, belief in aliens tarot, crystals
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Heelas
= 2 themes that chara NA =
Self Spirituality - looking w/in self X external ch
Detrad - rejecting trad sources of spiritual auth & valuing personal exper
often loosely org - audience / client cult - growing in UK - 2008 = 2000 NA activities & 146,000 practitioners
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John Drane (1999)
a post mod - suggests NRM have grown bc science failed - englightenment & rationalisations led to ppl dimissing trad religs - inc found sci didn't provide answers needed
= sense that science, reason & development would solve probs but have created new ones - environ disaster/ nuc catastrophe - argues ppl are turning away from metanarras - look to selves - turning to spirituality
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Statistics & Growth of NRMs
Barker (1999) - could be around 2000 NRMs in Europe but dif to = certain = m globally
v dif to know how many ppl follow - don't count, keep secret/ distort some have handful, others 100s/1000s few lacking cred claim millions - how can we know they are growing
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Kendal Project (2005)
Woodhead & Heelas - mapped congregational domain = ch & religiosity in the town - who attended, where & how often = 7.9% = 2x nat average
interviewed ch mems about meaning of ch & = questionaires
holistic milieu - mapped non congregational activs = m detailed case studies & street survey to talk to those outside both - only v small group expressed no spirituality at all
non-c = inc rapidly congre = dec HM pop w/ middle aged women
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Kendal Project Evaluation
= reasons for choosing Kendal but = not typical rep of religiosity in UK = predominant white pop - EMs not reflected tend to = m relig - doesn't rep growth of non Christian religs
= MC town - not necessarily rep of less prosperous multi cul town / city centres
defining HM = problematic
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Heelas - Practical Reasons for Growth of NRMs
appeal to m affluent & highly edu - feel something missing from their lives - seek to fill gaps and have money to pay for services
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Barker - Practical Reasons for Growth of NRMs
religs orgs = escapes from pressures of work & fam life - can offer alt fam struc
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Wallis - Practical Reasons for Growth of NRMs
can teach techs that inspire ppl to achieve emo & materially by unlocking spiritual power within
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Giddens - Secularisation & Growth of NRMs
trad religion ideas have watered down their beliefs to fit a m secular world ppl look to NRMs to recieve comfort & community in NRMs which big religs no longer offer
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Bruce - Secularisation & Growth of NRMs
loss of faith in trad religion leaders - seen as out of touch = refuge for those seeking spiritual & firm beliefs in secular soc
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Lyotard - Postmodernism & Growth of NRMs
= loss of faith in metanarras & what Berger ref as universe of meaning - created gaps NRMs used to fill
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Bauman - Postmodernism & Growth of NRMs
ppl exper crisis of meaning & join NRMs to retain some form of control & normality - bc of conflicting ideos & beliefs - helps form identity
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Baudrillard - Globalisation & Media & Growth of NRMs
G & mass media have opened access to new ideas & belief systems from around the world - B calles media saturated soc - believes this allowed NRMs to grow as media gives group m public profile & visibility to attract mems
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Weber - Marginalisation & Growth of NRMs
argued groups like world rejecting NRMs = m likely to emerge amoung marginal - appeal by providing a theodicy of dispriviledge
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Stark & Bainbridge - Marginalisation & Growth of NRMs
world rejecting NRMs provide access to close knit group of mems in sim position offering sense of security clear values & reward in heaven
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Glock & Stark - Protest & Growth of NRMs
NRMs emerge as form of religion/ social protest - many appeal to those whose values are at logerheads w/ those of the soc around them/ other religion groups
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Wilson - Anomie & Social Change & Growth of NRMs
periods of sudden/ rapid change create anomie - undermine/ disrupts trad N's & V's & universes of meaning
NRMs provide solus to uncertainty = clear & defined belief systems / sense of certainty
inc = response to social chnage since 1960s
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Stark & Bainbridge - Relative Deprivation & Growth of NRMs
ideas & sup derived from NRM membership may help to overcome those suffering a subjective feeling of being deprived / lacking something comp to those in soc group they iden/ comp w/
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Wallis - Status Frustration & Growth of NRMs
argues marginality may cause SF - NRMs appeal to young as membership can provide some sup for iden & status indepen of school/ fam - overcome SF
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Barker - Status Frustration & Growth of NRMs
believes young ppl lack financial & time commitments of mortgage/rent & work/fam - gives time & freedom to get involved if choose
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Census
| Problems w/ Measuring Religious Beliefs
way of measuring since 2001
head of hhold may fill out & put whole fam as their relig
ppl may not take seriously - 2001 390k put selves as Jedi Knights = 4th largest relig above judaism, Buddhism & Sikhism
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Church Census
| Problems w/ Measuring Religious Beliefs
looks at who attending ch on a given day - may artificially inflate based on date - not all religs included - ppl may be relig & not attend / attend & not be relig
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Data held by Religious Organisations
| Problems w/ Measuring Religious Beliefs
could inflate to retain impression are a sig social institution
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Religious Belief
whether ppl believe in relig & hold faith
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Religiousity
extent to which ppl ptp in relig activities
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Problems w/ Measuring Religious Beliefs & Religiousity
if def of relig = too broad can include NAMs & cults & not clear what attendence means
ppl can hold relig belief w/ little/no religiousity - can attend ch religiously but have no belief
if ask about belief are more likely to report but = little evidence they are/ practice
in many western democs the % of ppl claiming to belong to relig = much higher than those who practice
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Traditional Views of Social Class Differences in Religious Belief
religiousity = stronger among WC - Weber & Theodicy of Dispriviledge & trad M idea of opium of masses
M - relig performs dif roles for dif soc classes - RC legits pos & success for WC = hope of afterlife reward
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Contemporary Society View of Religious Belief
= some evi relig = higher in MC - 2015 survey 62% ch goers = MC = opps for social networking etc which MC make use of X nec inc relig faith
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Anglican Church
m MC = established ch seen as religion of RC
often takes anti estab pos on soc issues
Quakers = MC = m pol radical & anti-estab
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Roman Catholic Church
m WC in UK - predom in some well-estab & newer migrant coms - Irish & Eastern Eur
areas trad pop w/ Irish Ims = large indust cities - Liverpool
Cath trad seen as m conserv but in UK m likely to vote Labour
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Methodism
m WC than CofE - geo areas where faith = well estab - indust N Eng & history as a sect & issues around sects appeal to WC indus
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New Age Movements & Cults
appeal to MC - sense of spiritual dep
Bruce (1995) spiritual needs become m NB to those w/ fewer material needs
MC indus can still feel rela dep - seek answers for why not as successful
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Gender & Religiousity
m likely to attend ch & report = relig
2005 ch census - 57% women 43% men - 1990 = 84% & 64%
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Tradtional View of Women & Religiousity
expressive role = good match for relig
raising children in relig & taking to ch = part of role
proximity to childbirth & caring for sick & elderly - gives reason to pray & seek spiritual support & guidance
women trad marginalised in domestic roles - gave m time to devot to relig - men little time away from work m likely to spend on leisure
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Modern View of Women & Religiousity
women live longer - older ppl sig m relig
soc - women = compliant & passive - fits w/ relig - men = dom - take Lship pos = less happy to accept what told in ch
Simone de Beauvoir - women sold flase ideology - encour to believe will get reward in heaven
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Women & Sects
Glock & Stark (1965) - due to m dep - mat spiri & rela bc of patri
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Women, Cults & NAMs
Woodhead - men have drifted away from trad religs faster but have not replaced spirituality - MC women esp attracted to holistic millieu
NAMs may = conciously female-orien / women don't seen as religion = therapy, weightloss & exercise & = m attracted than men
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Miller & Hoffman - Gender
men m willing to take risk than women - inc levels of religiousity in risk averse - risk = X going to heaven - convinced atheists would not consider it a risk
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Feminised Churches
Woodhead (2005) sec has had bigger impact on men - Bruce - religion becomes m priv than public appeals m to women partic those w/ dom role
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Evaluating Gender
data can = ? women appear to attend ch m X mean m likely to believe - may = other reasons - friendship - men may X attend & have faith
may be reasons women m likely to respond to survey about faith - see as soc desireable & so answer accordingly bc of history - young men may think uncool
some sects = male dom - extreme conserv views of women - fewer women - New Christian Right
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Age & Belief
older ppl m relig = ethnocentric view - in UK applies to christianity
2011 census - 22% christians over 65 = 3.9% muslims 88% muslims under 50 - no belief = mainly younger 1/3 under 25
Christianity = rapidly ageing pop - Islam = younger age profile
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Brierley (2005)
av age of ch goers inc 37 - 49 - 1979 - 2005
lowest attendance = 15-19
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Why Older People = More Religious
aware of own mortality - afterlife
relig pracs m common when = young = soc into
relig orgs offer soc life & sup network for those m iso & disengaged from soc
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Why Younger People = Less Religious
relig insituts seen as boring
greater competition - spiritual & sec sources of inspiration - sub culs can = funcs - sport, celeb, music - Lynch (2008) Durkheim - sacred & profane - may hold sec heros as sacred
Bruce - dec in relig edu = revival of faith schools 1990-2000s = dec in Sunday schools = 1/2 attended now = almost extinct
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Voas & Crockett (2005)
ch census = m complex findings - young children = highest attendance dec in teens & inc late middle age
young children may not have much coice about attending
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Church Attendance
reason peak isn't elderly = struggle to attend - health & mobility issues / lack of transport
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Alternative Religious Organisations
= m mixed ages
sects appeal to young adults for same reasons to WC & women - offer companionship & commun - may chime w/ counter cul ideas - same for NAMs & cults - appeal m to MC & middle age women
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Evaluation of Age & Belief
census data on no relig likely to understate scale of issue - small sig group of young ppl opted for comedy relig - jedi knights / heavy metal - some iden as Christian w/o much relig belief - label of eth
data for muslims may = ? - relig faith & observance = v NB to fams - may = assump about relig beliefs by fam mem in census
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Ethnicity & Belief
Modood et al (1997) - almost all EMGs = m relig than W Brit maj
trends since suggest not outdated = m apparent - P & B seeing Muslim as primary identity
evidence = young muslims know m about relig than parents
Modood - some dec relig amoung asian men eg sikhs less likely to wear turban
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Cultural Transition
Bruce - EMGs can use relig & relig institus to assist immigration
new country w/ v dif belief systems & unfam trads relig coms help sup and dec shock of transition - Hindus built temples & Muslims mosques
but if = corecct then would see sec in coms as 2nd & 3rd gen need relig less = little evidence
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Cultural Defence
Bruce - use relig to defend selves from hostility of maj pop = safe com away from racism
eg A-C = predom christian - relig insitus = firmly estab so easier transition than Muslims post war - but set up own chs in reponse to racism in congre - 7th Day Adventists
could explain why young muslims = m relig = defence from islamophobia
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Johal (1998)
relig iden = inc NB in multi cul & faith soc - Modood & Davie (1994) - relig iden = sense of belonging & cul iden
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John Bird
1. greater levels of religiousity in home country = less sec bring faith w/ them - w/ m estab coms ppl maintain connection w/ c of origin thro fam - relig can = part of this
2. membership of relig group provides sense of commun & iden
3. maintains cul iden & trad
4. relig soc of children - under pressure to maintain relig
5. way to deal w/ oppression - cul def
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Chryssides
new immigrants can choose:
* apostasy - aban belief to try & fit into hostile environ
* accomodation - adapt beliefs to make m in tune w/ values of new environ
* renewed vigour - inc religiosity & observance in response to environ - can = fundemen
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Evaluating Ethnicity & Belief
stat date = convincing - could = soc construction - relig seen as NB in some EMGs - lack of faith = dev - could disguise atheism/agnosticism - relig orgs carry greater soc sig in some EMGs = com hub & service provider than just place to pray
Bruce - suggest high levels of religiosity not due to relig belief but other soc factors
don't neglect m recent migrant coms - predom EU RC migrants - polish im = inc in congre size
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Globalisation
how soc has become m interconnected across the world econ cul & pol
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Huntington (1993) Clash of Civilisations
relig can cause conflict = rad force for change
ppl see selves as belonging to civs linked to relig - relif ideas = inc NB in mod world
civs = W, confucian Japanese, Islamic etc
when come into contact = conflict
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Particularism
| Beyer (1994)
## Footnote
Key impact of Globalisation
relif inc used as avenue for anti glob
1 feature of glob = cul homogenisation - relig as op of that = how ppl = cul dif from one another contrib to inc fund = feature of pol conflict
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Universalism
| Beyer (1994)
## Footnote
Key impact of Globalisation
small fund groups may emph dif from others maj relig focus on what unites them - emph shared values & common concerns - inter faith dialogue thro global coms has helped to diffuse conflict between relig
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# **
Marginalisation
| Beyer (1994)
## Footnote
Key Impact of Globalisation
relig = inc marg in contemp soc playing less part in public life may = eurocentric view caused by soc change X glob
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Use of Communication Technology
can use mod tech to recruit new mems spread word & keep contact w/ mems = ironic for anti mod anti global relig orgs = way relig less linked to nat than was
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International Religions
relig iden much less attached to nat iden - m of main world relig = internat in chara & while some countries still have clear state relig = less feature of W iden
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Nanda (2008)
argues Hinduism = closely rela to Indian Nat 93% of Indians considered cul sup to others and inc indian nat & hinuism seen as same = civil relig worship of hindu gods = worship of india - Bellah
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Pentecostalism
C,J & I = local b4 glob socios suggest glob led to spread of some religs
Martin (2002) growth of pentecostalism thro developing world - features eg less hier appeal to ppl in poorer areas
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Religious Fundamentalism
reaction to glob
texts taken literally & rpovide strict set of rules should live by - clash with norm in contemp soc = highly pol
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Causes of Fundamentalism
Almond (2003) = pat of relig militancy led by self styled true believers
