Methods Flashcards
(123 cards)
1
Q
Bias
A
where the views of the researcher affect the research
2
Q
Generalisability
A
if the group studied are a rep of the pop then they will be able to make gens about whole soc
the larger the num of ppl in study & the m sophis the selection meths the m rep
3
Q
Qualitative Data
A
information from a range of sources which are not statistical - observation
4
Q
Quantitative Data
A
statistical numerical info
5
Q
Correlation
A
a statistical rela between two things
6
Q
Reliability
A
the quality of repeatability
if the findings are the same/ sim each time test = done
nature of socio menas uses dif meths - makes research dif to comp but same research should be repeatable if not then unreliable
7
Q
Validity
A
the extent to which data gives a true pic of the subject being studied / the research instrument measures what is set out to measure
when eval socios will question whether meths used were the m likely to get to the truth
8
Q
Representativeness
A
situation where the ppl the socios study are a cross section of the group they wish to gen about
9
Q
Researching Social Life
A
socios aim to provide insights into the shared soc world that the ordinary person wouldn’t normally have
the interest in soc is shared by others - journalists - use common sense to explore soc - socios have rejected this - common sense based on own limited & biased ops already held which override obj
bias occurs - best way to study = uncover patterns normally hidden - then seek explans
10
Q
Gathering Data
What does socio research set out to do?
A
- gather info about the soc world
knowledge can = stats / observs
need to be careful of accepting at face value - what is a fact for some might not be for others
11
Q
Establishing Correlations
What does socio research set out to do?
A
- research can help explore rela between dif elements of soc - m basic = correl
socios describe correla as situ where 1 soc event occurs & another tends to as well
12
Q
Developing Theories
What does socio research set out to do?
A
- research should support/ disprove a theory
info gathered helps explain why certain soc events occur - often involves providing explans for correlas
13
Q
Primary Data
A
those collected directly be researcher
14
Q
Secondary Data
A
those used by socios but = collected by other ppl
15
Q
Evaluating Data
A
socios = v critical of meths & data
if meth = weak then research may be incaccurate
look at:
1. reliability
2. validity
3. representativeness
4. generalisability
5. objectivity
16
Q
Issue of Reliability
A
some meths = m repeatable than others
well planned questionaires = m reliable meth & lone socio obv the least
17
Q
Issues w/ Validity
A
questionaires - highly reliable but not nec valid
ppl can lie therefore is repeated the results can = same but X true
obvs can = v valid
18
Q
Objectivity
A
concerned w/ the extent to which researchers have ensured their own v’s & b’s haven’t influ - if do then research = weakened & validity = impacted
impossible to keep all out - should be no intentional bias
19
Q
Practical Issues
Ideas in Essays
A
time, expense, funding, access to ptps, gatekeepers, researcher skills & charas
20
Q
Ethical Issues
Ideas in Essays
A
moral prins, informed consent, right to withdraw, protection from harm, privacy, confidentiality, pre-emptive consent
21
Q
Reliablity
Ideas in Essays
A
can it be replicated & get the same results
is the meth reliable
22
Q
Validity
Ideas in Essays
A
does the research tell the truth about the situ
can it be applied to other settings, culs, historical periods & pops
23
Q
Example
Ideas in Essays
A
give example from research / own understanding to illustrate the point made
24
Q
Representativeness
Ideas in Essays
A
can the findings be gen to other ppl, places/ groups
25
Theorectical Ideas
| Ideas in Essays
theoretical povs of the meth - what do positivists/ interps think
26
Theoretical Considerations in Choice of Research
refers to whether research is theoretically reliable & valid & researchers attitudes to what type of data & methods yield the best results
27
Positivism
| Theoretical Perspective
want to uncover general laws about behav using scientific quantative methods to study large nums of ppl in a reliable rep way
28
Interpretivism
| Theoretical Perspective
want to really understand & empth e/ indu ppls expers gaining in depth insights into their lives using qualitative methods for better rapports & greater validity
29
Positivism
| 1
view socio should use meths of nat scis - doesn't mean using expers = ethical probs - should use quan meths & aim to iden & measure soc strucs - example = D - suicide study
30
Positivism
| 2
quan meths - soc surveys, struc questionaires & offic stats = good reliability & rep
see soc as shaping the indu & believe soc facts shape indu action
trad stresses NBance of quan research - large scale surveys to get overview of soc & uncover soc trends - rela between edu ach & soc class - m interested in trends & patterns X indu
31
Social Facts
concepts & institutions in soc that are obj & sci verfiable
32
Durkheim's Study of Suicide
comp the incidence of various soc factors w/ num of cases of suicide
did close analysis of available off stats - showed varied: from one country to another - rapid soc change = higher rates, between dif soc groups - div = higher rates than mar, between relig groups - prots higher than caths
= rela stable for each group in rela to each other = entirely indu - untouched by soc factors
33
Durkheim's Study of Suicide Conclusion
suicide rates inc when = too little/much soc regulation/intergration
34
Social Regulation
the extent to which there are clear norms & values in a soc
35
Social Intergration
extent to which ppl belong to soc
36
Anomic
| Durkheim's 4 Types of Suicide
due to breakdown of soc equlibrium, bankruptcy, loss of job & family
37
Altruistic
| Durkheim's 4 Types of Suicide
results from over intergration of indu into soc proof removing them self for the betterment of immediate fam/ soc group
38
Fatalistic
| Durkheim's 4 Types of Suicide
soc sets an expec that burdensome ppl should remove themselves
39
Egoistic
| Durkheim's 4 Types of Suicide
soc isolation leads a man to destroy himself
40
Evaluation of Positivism
treats indu as passive & unthinking - humans are less predictable than P's suggest
I's argue ppl's subj realities are complex & this demands indepth qual meths
stats P's use to find laws of soc may be invalid bc of bias in way are collected
by remaining detached - get v shallow understanding of human behav
41
Key Features of Interpretivism
soc & soc strucs = soc construc creations of indus
emph free will/volun of indus
micro approach to research
behav is driven by beliefs meanings feelings and emotions
uses qual meths
accepts that interp of actions = subj
42
Subjectivity
form of bias & also indu = op of obj
43
Social Construct
exists not in obj reality but as a result of human interaction - exists bc humans agree it exists
soc construc theory says humans create constructs to make sense of obj world
struc what see into categories
44
Interpretivism
| 1
argue study of human soc must go beyond empirical & supposedly obj evidence to include subj views, opinions, emotions, values - can't be directly observed & counted - require interpretations
would argue research can't really estab soc facts - soc about subj values & interps & can't be understood through facts
45
Interpretivism
| 2
soc can't be treated as a science
indus have ability to exercise control & choices over actions - everyone = dif w/ dif views & attitudes = not pos to use sci meth to study soc
sci approach not suitable for study of soc bc the soc world differs to natural world ppl X chemicals/forces - behave dif & = m complex
46
Ethnomethodology
argues soc reality = construct of its mems we create reality using a stock of taken for granted common sense knowledge - socios job is to uncover what know is & how can be used to make sense of world
47
Interpretivism Example Research
Atkinson - uses ethnomethodology - agrees w/ Douglas that off stats = labels that coroners give to deaths but disagress that using qual data allows to get behind these labels to find the deceased's real meanings - from this can discover real rate of suicide = only interps by officials can study construction
48
Interpretivism Example Continued
A then focusses on how coroners categorise deaths - quali meths inclu convos w/ coroners, obvs of inquests & exams of court records
concl coroners have common sense theory about typical suicide - what kind of person commits suicide, reaso & what = typical mode/place of death - if case fits then categorised
49
Coroners' Common Sense Theory
use evidence such as:
1. suicide note/ prior threats
2. mode of death - hanging = typ suicide, road = accident, drowning = m complex
3. location & circums - shooting in deserted place = s not when hunting group
4. life history - disturbed childhood, mental illness / dif soc/personal situ - div, bereavment
50
Strengths of Interpretivism
examine micro approaches that see indu as having agency not simply a recipient of external soc forces - not deterministic
enables us to see how soc reality is constructed through meanings & negos
allows in depth understanding of motivs for behav & how ppl exper the world
51
Weaknesses of Interpretivism
Verstehen socio assumes all indus engage in rational behav
this understanding leads them to believe that indus understand the motivations behind their own actions
interp of events can be biased and lack obj
52
Problems w/ Coroners Common Sense Theory
if correct = prob w/ Durkheim's theory that stats are fact bc all doing is spelling out coroners theory about suicide - not cause of suicide
53
Control Group
a group treated normally & gives measure of how ppl behave when not exposed to exper treatment
eg allowed to sleep normally
54
Experitmental Group
group that recieve the experience treatment
eg sleep deprivation
55
Lab Experiment
conducted in special environment - all variables = controlled ptps aware in exper
56
Field Experiment
in m nat environ IV still delib controlled - ptps often not aware taking part
57
Natural Experiment
both environ & IV occur nat - take advantage of event that = ongoing/ has taken place - GCSEs/ nat disaster - don't manip IV
58
Quasi Experiment
contain nat occuring IV but = dif between ppl already existing - gender - examine the effect on DV
59
Extraneous Variables
if not controlled may affect DV & provide false impression that IV has produced changes when it hasn't - will become confounding if don't control - will ruin validity of exper
60
Confounding Variables
an extraneous v that varies systematically w/ IV so can't be sure of true source of change to DV - has probs affected results not IV
61
Participant Variables
difs between ptps could affect results - age, IQ, gender
62
Situational Variables
factors in environ that could affect the results - temp, noise, time of day - also things that could influence - DCs, investigator effects
63
Demand Characteristics
occur when ptp try to make sense of research situ & guess purpose of research/ present selves in good way - try to live up to demands of situ
64
Experimenter Effects
result from effects of researcher's behav & chars on an investigation
65
What is an Experiment?
aim to measure the effect the IV has on DV
key features: control over variables, precise measurement & establishes cause & effect relas
66
Independent Variable
variable we manipulate by deliberate changing it to see what effect on DV is
67
Dependent Variable
variable we measure to see whether IV as effect - try & estab cause & effect
68
Why don't we typically use experiments in sociology?
= v dif to control variables
idea of exper = whether in lab/field - phenomena observed in tightly controlled environ to see impact of certain variables - easier to achieve in lab - but lacks validity
socios interested in ppl's real life behav so expers not best meth
69
Hawthorne Effect
where ppl behav dif bc know are being watched - so not nat behav - undermines validity of research findings
although those who want socio = sci fav expers human agency/free will menas = v dif to imagine a suf controlled environ for successful socio exper
70
Example of Field Experiments
Roshenthal & Jacobson
71
Strengths of Field Experiments
subjects obsv in nat environ = less chance of hawthorne effect
has higher eco cal than lab - in real world situ & can be replicated - feature of sci enquiry
72
Limitations of Field Experiments
ethical issues - deception & informed consent - unaware are studied
cost = higher - monitoring subjects in real world w/ specific equip to record behav
presence of EVs means can't produce C&E rela = correlation between 2 factors
73
Heussenstamm (1971)
example of field exper - theory about police prejudice - 15 students B,W & latino - perfect driving records & same route put Black Panther stickers on bumper = IV - rev african US group fighting racism - wanted to see if treated dif = DV
1 pulled over 3x 3 days 17 days =153 days² 33 traffic citations
74
Evalution of Experiments
| Practical
time
cost
ease
reseacher skills
flexibility
access
researcher presence
75
Evalution of Experiments
| Ethical
confidentiality
informed consent
privacy
protection from harm
deception
legalities
76
Evalution of Experiments
| Theorectical
rep
gen
reliablity
data type
validity - research effetcs
validity - detail
obj
77
Strengths of Experiments
help estab C&E = replicable = carefully doc & controlled means = reliable - can replicate & get same results
can get results w/ high internal validity bc control EVs - but could lack validity if ppl behave differently
produce quantities data - easy to analyse stats & look for trends - Ps value this
78
Weaknesses of Experiments
may have results w/ internal validity but lack external - DCs & HE
can lack eco validity bc don't reflect real life situs
lab expers may = expensive - costly equip, time - so may be short/ small scale - require skilled researchers to design
lab expers may not be suited to studying large scale social changes/ LT historical processes = limited in scope & duration
field expers can be affected by EVs that can't be controlled
79
Considerations taken when designing research
data needed - primary/secondary
80
Ways to Collect Primary Data
Experiments
Interviews/ questionaires (self reports)
Observations
81
Ways to Collect Secondary Data
Historical Documents
Personal Documents (letters, diaries etc)
Gov Stats
Media Content
Research by other socios
82
Factors Affecting Sociological Studies
practical
ethical
theoretical
83
Practical Considerations
factors which makes some methods more/less easy to adopt
84
Time
| Practical
how long does the researcher have to spend & how many researchers are avaliable to carry out the work
85
Money
| Practical
how much funding is avaliable & who is providing it - if takes longer will probs cost more - salaries
86
Skills & Characteristics of Researcher
| Practical
some will be confident w/ stats, others skilled in interviews - may wish to use methods = fam with - gender, age, ethn/ social class may = NB for building rapport in interviews/ ptp obsv/ fitting in
87
Subject Matter
| Practical
some topics lend to certain methods - class dif in health through giv stats
88
Ethical Considerations
refers to if morally right/wrong & if risks are out weighed by benefit to soc
should avoid illegal activity
89
Fully Informed Consent
| Ethical
ptps should be told what will happen to them & how their data will be used so can decide to ptp
90
Deception
| Ethical
shouldn't lie to ptps if nec should use safeguards to protect ptps & should = debriefed
91
Protection from Harm
| Ethical
ptps & researchers should = safe psychologically/ physically
92
Confidentiality & Privacy
| Ethical
ptps should not be identifiable & privacy should not be invaded - no unnec priv questions
93
Theoretical Considerations
whether research = theoretically reliable & valid & researcher's attitudes to what type of data & methods yield the best results
94
Reliability
| Theoretical
can it be replicated effectively
95
Validity
| Theoretical
do the findings tell the truth about the situation
96
Theoretical Perspective
positivism - uncover gen laws using sci quan meths to study large nums of ppl in reliable rpe way
interpretivism - want to understand & emph w/ indu ppl's expers - indepth insights - qual meths for better rapports & validity
97
The Hypothetico Deductive Method
choose topic, issue, problem
gather background research
develop hypothesis/ question
decide on meth & sampling frame
conduct pilot study
conduct research & collect data
analyse data
draw conclusions
evaluate study
98
Choosing topic, issue, problem to investigate
personal interests
political beliefs/ theorectical per
oppur & access
funding
soc & in vogue topics
ethics / sensitivity of topic
99
Gather Background Research
help formulate hypothesis
find out what has been done before so can add to
help determine research meths
100
Research Question
sets out what the researcher is planning to investigate & give clear focus
101
Hypothesis
hunch / uninformed guess - usually written as statement to be tested & then sup / refuted by evidence
102
Methodology
which research methods you are going to use to collect data
103
Sampling Frame
how will choose ptps
104
Conduct Pilot Study
small scale trial run of research method b4 main study to check for problems
ensures research works in practice
to make sure data collected is type needed & wanted
to gen check how research will be conducted
105
Sample
small part / quantity intended to show what the whole is like
used bc takes too long to study everyone
use to rep whole pop
106
Target Population
whole group of indus the researcher is interested in
aim to take rep sample from target pop using sampling method
should = rep so gens about target pop can be made on basis of sample
107
Oppurtunity Sample
ppl m readily available - ppl walking down street
= easiest meth bc can use 1st ptps find - takes less time to locate sample
= inevitably biased bc sample drawn from small part of target pop
108
Volunteer Sample
advertise on notice board, social media/ newspaper - ppl contact you
have access to variety of ptps (all ppl who read newspaper) - makes m rep & less biased than oppur sample
109
Random Sample
means each mem of pop having equal chance of being selected
easiest way = give num then use random num gen to select ptps/ hat - lottery method
= unbiased but may end up w/ biased sample bc = too small
110
Systematic Sample
probability meth - select mems of pop at regular interval eg every 15th person on list of pop
if pop in random order can imitare benefits of random sampling
111
Stratified Sampling
meth of random sampling where divide pop into smaller subgroups/ strata based on shared charas of mems - then randomly select from these groups to form final sample
these shared charas can include gender age sex race edu level / income
soc charas of pop may not be known - impos to create cross section
ppl could refuse to ptp
112
Ethnography
in depth scientific description of specific culture by someone w/ 1st hand exper of obsv that cul
based on small scale field work - prods qual data = valid bc study in nat settings
can use on whole commun / indu life history
can use many meths to get prim meths - case studies, focus groups, longitudinal surveys, obsv
may also anaylse docs - diaries & letters = 2ndary data
113
Self Report Technique
a meth where ptps tell you about their own behav, feeling / expers - interview/questionaire
114
Semi - Structured Interview
some pre deter ?s but interviewer can develop others in response to answers
115
Structured Interviews
follow schedule - set list of ?s
116
Unstructured Interview
m like convo on theme w/ interviewer asking ?s as they arise as part of convo
make interview m valid but inc DCs & social desireability bias
117
Closed Questions
collect quan data
give facts
easy & easy to answer
?er has control
118
Open Questions
collect qual data
ask to think & reflect
give opinions & feelings
respondent has control
119
Structured Interviews Strengths
cost effective & faster than unstruc
replicable
little training needed
can prod easy to analyse quan data if closed ?s
can gather in depth qual if open ?s
120
Structured Interviews Weaknesses
social desireability bias
not possible to deviate from interview schedule so can't explore things ptp says in m depth
121
Unstructured Interviews Strengths
can develop rapport meaning m valid, personal, insightful info
can ask follow up questions on ares of interest to get m detail
can ask for clarification
122
Unstructured Interviews Weaknesses
social desireability bias
slower & m costly than questionaires
need to train interviewers
not easy to replicate
may have irrelevant info to sift
interviewer bias
123
Snowball Sample
researcher contacts someine to interview then asks them to suggest others then each suggest more
not rep but useful for contacting sample who can be dif to find/persuade - crims
