beliefs: theories of beliefs: definitions and functionalism

Question 1

What is the Oxford dictionary definition of religion?

Answer 1

The belief in and worship of a superhuman controlling power, especially a personal God or gods.

Question 2

What are the three main ways sociologists define religion?

Answer 2

• Substantive definitions
• Functional definitions
• Constructionist definitions

Question 3

What do substantive definitions focus on?

Answer 3

The content or substance of religious belief, such as belief in God or the supernatural.

they are ‘exclusive’ and differentiate between religious and non-religious beliefs

Question 4

What is a key criticism of substantive definitions of religion?

Answer 4

They do not acknowledge beliefs and practices that do not believe in God, leading to accusations of Western bias.

Question 5

How do functional definitions define religion?

Answer 5

religion is defined by the social or psychological functions it performs for the individual and society

Question 6

According to Durkheim, what is a function of religion?

Answer 6

Contributes to social integration rather than any specific belief in God or supernatural.

Question 7

What is a key characteristic of functional definitions?

Answer 7

They are ‘inclusive’ of all beliefs and practices that do not believe in God.

Question 8

What is a limitation of functional definitions?

Answer 8

The function of ‘social integration’ can be fulfilled outside of religion.

Question 9

What do constructionist definitions emphasize?

Answer 9

Individuals define religion for themselves, making it impossible to produce a single universal definition.

Question 10

What do constructionist definitions investigate?

Answer 10

How definitions of religion are constructed, challenged, and fought over.
EG: the debate about whether scientology is a religion?

Question 11

What is a criticism of constructionist definitions?

Answer 11

It makes it impossible to generalize about the nature of religion considering there is no universal definition.

Question 12

Which definition would not accept Buddhism as a religion and why?

Answer 12

Substantive definition; Buddhism does not include the idea of worshipping a creator god.

Question 13

Why might veganism be accepted as a religion under certain definitions?

Answer 13

Constructionist definition; it allows for personal definitions of religion.

Question 14

Which definition would be concerned with answering ‘ultimate questions’ according to Yinger (1970)?

Answer 14

Functional definition.

Question 15

whjat are the 3 different forms of religion

Answer 15

• monotheism
• polytheism
• spiritual religion

Question 16

define monotheism

Answer 16

Religions that believe in only one all powerful god

Question 17

define polytheism

Answer 17

Religions that believe in many different gods, usually associated with different aspects of life

Question 18

define spiritual religion

Answer 18

Religions that believe in something beyond the world we see (such as karma or spiritual ‘energy’) but not in a god figure

Question 19

What is the key distinction in Durkheim’s understanding of religion?

Answer 19

The distinction between the sacred and the profane

Question 20

Define the term ‘sacred’ as used by Durkheim.

Answer 20

Things that are special because they are a product of a higher being or supernatural power

Question 21

Define the term ‘profane’.

Answer 21

Things that are ordinary and mundane, having no special significance

Question 22

What essential function do sacred symbols perform according to Durkheim?

Answer 22

They unite believers into a single moral community > worshipping sacred symbols is seen as worshipping society itself

Question 23

What is a totem in the context of Durkheim’s study of the Arunta tribe?

Answer 23

The clan’s emblem that symbolizes the clan’s identity

A totem can be an animal or plant that represents the social group.

Question 24

How does Durkheim argue that worshiping a totem affects individuals?

Answer 24

Individuals are unwittingly worshipping society, as the totem represents the power of the group > this inspires feelings of awe and dependence.

Question 25

What is the collective conscience according to Durkheim?

Answer 25

Shared norms and values that give individuals a sense of belonging > It is reinforced through regular shared religious rituals.

Question 26

AO3: What criticism might postmodernists have of Durkheim's theory?

Answer 26

They argue that increasing diversity has **fragmented the collective conscience**, so there is **no shared value system for religion to reinforce** Postmodernist **Mestrovic** (2011) highlights this fragmentation.

Question 27

AO3: According to **Worsley**, what is a limitation of Durkheim's division between sacred and profane?

Answer 27

Individuals are not aware that they are worshipping society through totem worship There is no sharp division between sacred and profane, and different clans can share totems > **Durkheim's conclusions may not apply universally to all religions.**

Question 28

True or False: Durkheim's theory explains social integration within communities but accounts for conflicts between them.

Answer 28

False ## Footnote Durkheim's theory is more applicable to small-scale societies.

Question 29

What are the two cognitive functions of religion?

Answer 29

1. **Source of intellect** and cognitive capacities 2. **Origin of concepts** and categories for reasoning

Question 30

How does religion serve as a source of intellect?

Answer 30

It provides categories such as **time, space, and cause** necessary for reasoning > this **allows us to think and share thoughts** about such categories

Question 31

According to Durkheim, what is the role of religion in human thought?

Answer 31

Religion is the **origin for human thought, reason, and science** > we need for reasoning, understanding the world and communicating. E.g. ideas about a creator bringing the world into the beginning of time and space

Question 32

What psychological function of religion did **Malinowski** observe in the **Trobriand** islanders?

Answer 32

Religion **helps individuals deal with anxious and stressful situations** > they practiced religious ceremonies when islanders were in dangerous waters

Question 33

What conclusion did Malinowski draw about religion and social stability?

Answer 33

Religion helps **preserve the stability of society**

Question 34

List three situations when religion might be a source of comfort.

Answer 34

* Birth * Abuse * Health complications

Question 35

How does religion promote social solidarity?

Answer 35

By helping people cope with emotional stress

Question 36

What are examples of religious ceremonies that **reinforce social solidarity**?

Answer 36

* Weddings * Baptism * Bah Mitzvah

Question 37

What is the cognitive function of religion in relation to communication?

Answer 37

Religion gives us shared categories to communicate

Question 38

How does religion explain the creation of the world?

Answer 38

It provides a framework for understanding the origins of time and space

Question 39

What role do funerals play in society according to the psychological function of religion?

Answer 39

They reinforce social solidarity

Question 40

True or False: Religion only serves cognitive functions.

Answer 40

False > there are also psychological functions

Question 41

What are the two functions of religion identified by Parsons in modern society?

Answer 41

1. It creates and **legitimates society's central values** 2. It is the **primary source of meaning**

Question 42

How does religion create and legitimate society's central values?

Answer 42

By sacralising them(making them sacred) , e.g. the **USA sacralised core American values like individualism,** meritocracy, and self-discipline

Question 43

What does the sacralisation of values promote in society?

Answer 43

Value consensus and social stability

Question 44

What ultimate questions does religion answer to provide meaning?

Answer 44

Questions such as **'why do the good suffer?'** > this provides a source of stability for people in hardship

Question 45

Who is **Robert Bellah** and what concept is he associated with?

Answer 45

Robert Bellah is **associated with the concept of civil religion**

Question 46

What does civil religion describe?

Answer 46

The relationship between religion and national identity

Question 47

How is loyalty expressed in American civil religion?

Answer 47

Through loyalty to the nation-state and a belief in God

Question 48

What are some examples of expressions of American civil religion?

Answer 48

* Pledge of allegiance * National anthem * Phrases like 'one nation under God'

Question 49

What is the significance of the term 'American God' in civil religion?

Answer 49

It is not a specific God but **represents a unifying belief for all Americans**

Question 50

AO3: PSYCHOLOGICAL FUNCTION > Malowinski:What criticism do **Marxist** and **feminist** perspectives have of the functionalist view of religion?

Answer 50

They focus on positive functions but **ignore negative aspects such as oppression** > religion is not a source of comfort for all

Question 51

AO3: True or False: All multi-faith societies are harmonious.

Answer 51

False > functionalists ignore the conliuct and division that religion causes COUNTER: civil religion aims to overcome this division

Question 52

AO3: Using a substantive definition, is civil religion considered a religion?

Answer 52

No, because it is **not based on belief in the supernatural**

Question 53

What does Bellah's work demonstrate about the relevance of religion?

Answer 53

Religion remains **relevant despite differences in ethnicity and secularisation**

Question 54

What is secularisation and how does it affect the role of religion?

Answer 54

Secularisation is the process by which religion may play a less important role in uniting people

Question 55

AO3: FUNCTIONALIST > Parsons: What negative impacts can religion have according to the text?

Answer 55

It can divide people and cause conflict, such as **terrorism ** eg: Islamic State attacks and the 9/11 Al-Quaeda attacks in America

Question 56

AO3: What does the functionalist perspective highlight about religion?

Answer 56

How religion functions for both the individual and society