T and M: sociology and science

Question 1

define a science

Answer 1

Science is the pursuit and application of knowledge and understanding of the natural and social world following a systematic methodology based on evidence

Question 2

define a social science

Answer 2

the scientific study of human society and social relationships

Question 3

outline positivism and science

Answer 3

Comte argued the use of scientific research methods to study society would produce a ‘positive science of society’ > this would show behaviour is governed by laws of cause and effect focuses on studying social institutions and social structures as a whole

Question 4

define social facts

Answer 4

institutions/norms/values/laws external to an individual with the coercive power to control aspects of their life
eg: class is a social fact and it impacts things like subject choice and educational achievement

Question 5

positivism and social facts

Answer 5

believe social facts cause events in the world
Durkheim argues sociology should study these facts in an observable measureable way

Question 6

what are the tow features that Durkheim suggests make sociology scientific

Answer 6

inductive reasoning
verificationism

Question 7

explain how inductive reasoning and verificationism make sociology scientific

Answer 7

inductive reasoning: gathering data about the world through careful obervation and measurement > uses scientific methods > able to see general patterns of behaviour

verificationism: theories are confirmed or verified through the collection of evidence

Question 8

outline interpretivism and science

Answer 8

Interpretivists argue that sociology cannot be scientific because the subject matter of our research (human behaviour) is completely different from the subject matter of “hard” sciences. Science only deals with cause and effect, not human meanings. Sociology studies people, who have consciousness. People make sense of the world in
their own way and attach different meanings to actions. Their actions can only be understood through their internal meanings, not through external stimuli.

eg: red light means stop but we have free will to ignore it > we stop because we interpret it to mean stop but some people do not

Question 9

What are the views of interactionism regarding causal explanations?

Answer 9

They believe that we can have causal explanations

Question 10

What do interactionists reject about the positivist view?

Answer 10

Defining hypothesis before conducting research

Question 11

Who argues that defining hypotheses before research risks distorting reality?

Answer 11

Glaser and Strauss (1968)

Question 12

What does Garfinkel reject regarding human behavior?

Answer 12

The possibility of causal explanations

Question 13

According to phenomenology and ethnomethodology, where does social reality exist?

Answer 13

In people’s consciousness > therefore e must use interpretivst research methods

Question 14

True or False: There is a possibility of cause-and-effect explanations in phenomenology.

Answer 14

False

Question 15

AO3: postmodernist view of sociology as a science

Answer 15

Postmodernists reject the idea that sociology is scientific.
They argue that science is a ‘meta-narrative’ just one body of knowledge among many but it has become dominant because of its relationship with capitalism. This relationship has put society more at risk of exploitation, suffering and destruction.

Question 16

AO3: science is a meta-narrative

Answer 16

No, there is no such thing as one ‘truth’ – science is a metanarrative (one more big story explaining the world) and is no more valid than any other. Therefore there is no reason we should adopt science as a model for sociology.

Question 17

outline Popper’s view of sociology as a science

Answer 17

claims sociology can be scientific but is not scientific > he suggests many systems of thought to have one ‘universal truth’

Question 18

state the 2 concepts that Popper developed

Answer 18

1. The fallacy of induction
2. Falsificationism

Question 19

explain the fallacy of induction

Answer 19

Popper argues we should reject verificationism because of the ‘fallacy (error) of induction’.

Popper uses the example of swans to illustrate the fallacy of induction. Having observed a large number of swans, all of which were white, we might make the generalization, ‘All swans are white’. But however we cannot prove that all swans are white - a single observation of a black swan will destroy the theory. Thus, we can never prove a theory is true simply by producing more observations that support or ‘verify’ it.

Question 20

explain falsification

Answer 20

falsification > A scientific statement that is capable of being proven wrong by the evidence. That is we must be able to say what evidence would count as
falsifying the statement when we come to put it to the test. For example, a test would disprove the law of gravity if, when we let go of an object, it did not fall.

A good theory has two features:
1. It is falsifiable but when tested is proven
2. It is bold- it claims to explain a great deal.

Question 21

explain how an open society allows for falsification

Answer 21

Popper argues there can never be absolute proof that any knowledge is true. A good theory isn’t necessarily a true theory, therefore - it is simply one that has withstood attempts to falsify it so far.

Science is a public activity, open to criticism that makes it falsifiable. The flaws in a theory can be readily exposed and better theories developed. Popper believes that this explains why scientific knowledge grows so rapidly. It is an open society that is free in expression and the right to challenge accepted ideas.

Question 22

AO3: Popper > sociology is unfalsifiable

Answer 22

Popper believes that much sociology is unscientific because it consists of theories that cannot be put to the test with the possibility that they might be falsified.

For example, Marx argues that eventually there will be a revolution leading to a classless society. This has not yet happened because of the superstructure that maintains false class consciousness.
If there isn’t a revolution – Marx is correct.
If there is a revolution – Marx is correct.

Question 23

AO3: marxism is a pseudo-science

Answer 23

concepts, such as false class consciousness, were too abstract to be seen and measured.
In order for sociology to be considered scientific a hypothesis would need to be tested using scientific research methods.

Question 24

AO3: criticism of Popper > he views science as logical

Answer 24

Feyerabend criticises both Popper and positivism because they view science as logical and rational. However, there is a big difference between what scientists say and what they do. There is no such thing as a universal “scientific method” – individual
scientists follow their own rules

Question 25

AO3: criticism of Popper > scientists are biased

Answer 25

Kaplan argues that many **scientists “cheat”**: they **hide bad experiments**, **don’t publish negative results** and are heavily **biased towards proving their own theories right**. The “scientific process” is applied after the experiment, in the writing-up process. Its function is to mystify science to convince ordinary people that scientists deserve respect and rewards.

Question 26

what concept did Kuhn present

Answer 26

scientific paradigm

Question 27

explain paradigms

Answer 27

paradigm: a set of norms, or a kind of culture > A **paradigm is shared by members of a given scientific community** It provides a **basic framework of assumptions, principles, methods and techniques** within which members of that community work. > **Scientists accept the paradigm** uncritically as a **result of their socialization**

Question 28

what happens to work and theorie that contradict the paradigm

Answer 28

Their work might go **unpublished** or even may **lead to dismissal**

Question 29

explain scientific revolutions

Answer 29

Kuhn: While mainstream science accepts the paradigm, there will be **"radical science" that challenges those assumptions** and so the possibility arises for a **paradigm shift;** with that the radical science may become the new mainstream.

Question 30

due to scientific revoltuions: how should contemporary scientists consider their evidence

Answer 30

they should **consider their evidence from within the taken for granted assumptions**, for example, evolution and gravity (just as scientists once took it for granted that the Earth was in the centre of the universe, or even that the Earth was flat).

Question 31

AO3: implications > lack of paradigm in sociology

Answer 31

it is divided into **competing perspectives** or schools of thought (pre-paradigmatic, prescientific). There is **no agreement on what to study and what method to use, what we should expect to find and so on.** Examples of disagreement: * Structure vs Action * Consensus vs Conflict

Question 32

AO3 > sociology as a young science

Answer 32

**Kuhn** argues that sociology is **not a mature, mainstream science** because it hasn't found a unifying paradigm. Sociologists do not share a set of assumptions about the world or about how to do research. He concludes that **sociology is a "young science"** but that it could**, in the future, the many perspectives could come to an agreement around one paradigm and become a science.** However, it is a concept of science that differs significantly from that of positivist sociologists

Question 33

explain realist arguments

Answer 33

Realists distinguish between open and closed systems to argue that **science can study unobservable phenomenon,** > therefore **sociology can be a science.**

Question 34

is sociology an open or closed system

Answer 34

open system > the researcher cannot control and measure all the relevant variables and so **cannot make precise predictions** similar to how meterologists can't make exact weather predictions

Question 35

do realists reject positivst or interpretivst views

Answer 35

reject **positivist** views that suggest **science is only concerned with observable phenomena** For example, **physicists cannot directly observe the interior of a black hole**. There is no barrier than to studying meanings scientifically.