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Bio 2 Exam 4 Flashcards

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0
Q

Pluripotent cells can do what?

A

They can form all cells of the embryo but not the placenta.

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1
Q

What are totipotent cells?

A

They can form all cells of the embryo, including the placenta.

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2
Q

What are multipotent cells?

A

They can become more than one cell type, but have less variety than pluri or multipotent cells.

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3
Q

What is a field?

A

Cells have the potential to become a specific cell type.

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4
Q

What is the inner cell mass (ICM)?

A

It is what becomes the embryo.

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5
Q

What are master regulatory genes?

A

Transcription factors that control the expression of all genes related to a certain cell fate.

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6
Q

What are the early developmental phases?

A
  1. zygote
  2. morula
  3. blastocyte
  4. gastrulation
  5. embryo
  6. fetus
  7. adult
  8. gametes
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7
Q

What is a zygote?

A

a fertilized egg.

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8
Q

What are the cells like in the morula phase?

A

16-early 32 cells; inner eight are pluripotent. Stage before fluid filled inner cavity forms.

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9
Q

What can you tell me about blastocytes?

A

Fluid filled cavities. 32 cells. Early stages of being an embryo.

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10
Q

What is the Inner Cell Mass?

A

Puripotent. Source of embryonic stem cells.

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11
Q

What is a trophoblast cell?

A

Forms the embryonic portion of the placenta.

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12
Q

Gastrulation?

A

First massive cell movements.

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13
Q

When is the embryo time period?

A

Weeks 1-8. Cell division, cell migration and organ development.

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14
Q

When is the fetus time period?

A

9 weeks before birth. Size increases and organs are refined.

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15
Q

What are the three stages of cell commitment?

A
  1. Specification: fate is still reversible (if environment is changed, like in frog experiment).
  2. Determination: fate is no longer reversible
  3. Differentiation: overt changes in structure and function,- ie it begins to look like a muscle
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16
Q

What is the relationship between gene expression and different organs?

A

Some genes are only expressed in one organ (heart).

Some genes are expressed in more than one organ (live and heart).

Some genes are always express (cytoskeleton, MF… housekeeping genes).

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17
Q

What are three levels of transcriptional regulation?

A
  1. TFs
  2. histone modification
  3. DNA methylation
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18
Q

What are master regulatory genes?

A

TFs that are the shit. They turn on the genes that are necessary to confer a cell’s fate. They determine cell fate.

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19
Q

What are the three germ layers?

A

endoderm, ectoderm, mesoderm.

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20
Q

What are characteristics of stem cells?

A
  1. Self renewal

2. Can become any cell type with appropriate signals.

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21
Q

What is the Sry

A

It is the MRG expressed in sertoli cells on the Y chromosome for the testes.

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22
Q

What are primordial germ cells (PGCs)?

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A

They are derived from bipotential, non-gonad tissue and become sperm if they go into the gonads, or eggs if they go into the ovaries.

23
Q

What is the difference between the Mullerian and Wolffian ducts?

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A

Wolffian are for boys. They make the vas deferens, epididymis and glands.

Mullerian are for girls. They make the oviduct, uterus, cervix, and upper portion of vagina.

24
What destroys the Mullerian duct?
anti-mullerian factor is secreted by sertoli cells in the testes.
25
What is the default sex in humans, and what is needed to tip the scale?
The default sex is female, and adrogens are needed in order to make a male.
26
What does the endoderm give rise to?
1. GI tract 2. Lining of glands that empty into GI tract 3. Urinary bladder 4. Epithelium (of trachea, lungs, pharynx, thyroid, and intestines)
27
What does the Ectoderm give rise to?
1. Neural tube: brain, spinal chord, PP, motor neurons, retina 2. Neural crest: PNS, adrenal medulla, 3. Surface ectoderm: epidermis, hair, nails, etc.
28
What does the Mesoderm give rise to?
1. Skeletal muscle 2. Dermis and Connective Tissue 3. Urogenital System 4. Heart and Blood 5. Kidney and Spleen
29
What do MRGs usually code for?
TFs that turn on specific sets of genes.
30
What are anti-oncogenes (aka- tumor suppressor genes)?
These are the genes that limit the reproduction of a cell. MRGs are a type of anti-oncogene. If this gene is broken, tumors can form.
31
What are proto-oncogenes?
Genes that promote cell division.
32
What is an oncogene?
Cancerous cell, gas pedal is stuck to the floor and cell proliferates uncontrollably.
33
What are the three states of an MRG?
On, off, and poised. The state is determined by the methylation of the H3 histone tail.
34
Methylation of the fourth AA on the H3 histone means what?
chromatin packing is down. transcription of MRG is up. the gene is turned on.
35
Where is the Sry gene located?
On the Y chromosome, so only men have it.
36
What is the difference between euchromatin and heterochromatin?
Euchromatin is loosely packed and capable of transcription. Heterochromatin is tightly packed and incapable of transcription.
37
What is the difference between haploid and diploid?
Haploid has only one set of the genetic code ("v"). Diploid has both sets ("X"). Sperm and egg cells are haploid. The fertilized egg is diploid.
38
What effect does phosphorylation have on chromatin and the sebsequent transcription? Acetylation?
Phosphorylation closes chromatin, decreasing transcription. Acetylation opens chromatin, increasing transcription.
39
What does it mean to drive differentiation at the expense of proliferation?
In the presence of some MRGs, cells stop proliferating and don't prepare to multiply, this is called G0. While in the G0 phase they can continue their function,-ie heart cells keep pumping.
40
What is the difference between a tumor supressor and a proto-oncogene?
Tumor supressors (anti-oncogene) will stop proliferation; absence of it can lead to cancer via uncontrolled cell division. Proto-oncogenes encourage cell division, and an overactive proto-oncogene can cause cancer.
41
What is a somatic cell?
A cell forming the body of a multi-cellular organism. Not a gamete or germ cell, etc.
42
Where are MRGs translated?
They are translated in the cytosol. They have a NLS (nuclear locating signal) which then brings the proteins into the nucleus where they help with transcription.
43
What is made in the nucleolus?
rRNA is made in the nucleolus. DNA is transcribed in the nucleus.
44
In the humoral immune system, where are the antibodies located?
They are released from the cell.
45
What is a major difference between the humoral and cell mediated immune response?
Humoral: Neither the antibody nor the antigen are located on a eukaryotic cell wall. Binds to viruses or proteins. Cell Mediated: Antibody and antigen are both located on eukaryotic cell surfaces.
46
What's the difference between lymphocytes and phagocytes?
Lymphocytes are made in lymph nodes and other places and are responsible for making antibodies. Divided into B and T cells. Phagocytes have to two types: dendritic and macrophages. Needed to identify the appropriate antigen and get production going in the lymphocytes. Also needed to destroy the antigen.
47
What are the two types of WBCs?
1. Lymphocytes: includes B and T Cells | 2. Phagocytes
48
Where is MHCI found?
On the surface of all nucleated human body cells.
49
What is an epitope?
The specific site on an Ag that the immune system recognizes and binds to.
50
What are the four features of Adaptive Immunity?
1. specificity 2. identify self vs. non-self 3. respond to a diverse number of non-self Ag 4. memory
51
Which MHC protein is work with which CD_ protein?
MHC II works with CD4. They are both part of the humoral system which picks up Ag from the blood and lymph systems. They present the Ag to Th cells. MHCI works with CD8. An infected cell presents the Ag to Tc cells, and the Tc cells will kill the infected cell.
52
how does ADH affect water retention? Where does it come from? What triggers its production?
ADH/Vasopressin directly controls H2O reabsorption in the collecting ducts by placing aquaporins into the apical side of the epithelial cells lining the collecting ducts. ADH production is stimulated by the hypothalamus which triggers a reaction in the posterior pituitary. It's production is caused by osmolarity of blood or low stretch in arterioles.
53
What does aldosterone regulate? How does it regulate it, and what triggers the response?
Aldosterone works in distal tubules and first part of collecting ducts promoting reabsorption of Na+. It triggers the transcription of more Na+ transport proteins, and is triggered by low GFR in kidney.
54
Is the Na/K pump of the kidney on the luminal or BL side of the epithelial cells?
It is on the BL side.
55
What is the osmolarity range found in the kidney?
approximately 1200 osmolar near bottom of loop of henle, and around 300 osmolar at the tops of the loop of henle.

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