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Biochemistry Flashcards

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1
Q

Glycolysis:
Is glycolysis a reversible or irreversible process?

A

Irreversible

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2
Q

Glycolysis:
Where does glycolysis occur?

A

Cytoplasm

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3
Q

Glycolysis:
What is the full reaction of glycolysis?

A

.

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4
Q

Glycolysis:
Describe Glucokinase: 4 points

A
  • low affinity
  • high Km
  • acts as a glucose sensor
  • only uses glucose at high concentration
    located in liver and pancreatic beta cells
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5
Q

Glycolysis:
Describe Hexokinase: 4 points

A
  • High affinity
  • Low Km
  • Basal glucose metabolism
  • Present in all tissues
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6
Q

Glycolysis:
What is the rate limiting enzyme in Glycolysis?

A

Phosphofructokinase-1
- in charge of turning Fructose-6-phosphate to Fructose-1,6- Bisphosphate

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7
Q

Glycolysis:
What factors regulate PFK-1?

A
  • ATP and citrate inhibit (no glycolysis)
  • AMP stimulates (continues glycolysis)
  • Fructose-2,6- Bisphosphate further stimulates (makes glycolysis happen faster)
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8
Q

Glycolysis:
What hormonal signals regulate PFK-1?

A
  • glucagon inhibits
  • insulin stimulates
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9
Q

Glycolysis:
What is the role of Pyruvate Kinase in glycolysis?
How is it regulated?

A
  • Turn Phosphoenolpyruvate into Pyruvate
  • ATP and citrate inhibit
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10
Q

Glycolysis:
What are the important intermediates of Glycolysis? 5 points

A

.

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11
Q

Gluconeogenesis:
Where does gluconeogenesis mainly occur?

A

Liver and kidney, both in the cytosol and mitochondria

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12
Q

Gluconeogenesis:
Why can’t gluconeogenesis occur in skeletal muscles?

A

Absence of Glucose-6-Phophatase

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13
Q

Gluconeogenesis:
How can pyruvate reversibly turn to Alanine?

A

Cahill cycle

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14
Q

Gluconeogenesis:
How can pyruvate reversibly turn to Lactate?

A

Cori cycle

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15
Q

Gluconeogenesis:
How does Pyruvate turn into PEP?

A
  • First. Pyruvate turns to oxaloacetate via Pyruvate Carboxylase with Biotin as cofactor (B7)
  • Second, Oxaloacetate turns to PEP via PEP Carboxykinase
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16
Q

Gluconeogenesis:
What enzyme turns Fructose-1,6-Bisphosphate to Fructose-6-Phosphate?

A

Fructose-1,6-Bisphosphatase

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17
Q

Gluconeogenesis:
What enzyme turns Glucose-6 phosphate to Glucose?

A

Glucose-6- Phosphatase

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18
Q

Gluconeogenesis:
What is the rate limiting step?

A

.

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19
Q

Gluconeogenesis:
How is Fructose-1,6 Bisphosphatase regulated?

A
  • Citrate stimulates
  • AMP and Fructose-2,6-Bisphophate inhibits
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20
Q

Gluconeogenesis:
What does PEP caboxykinase require to work?

A

GTP

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21
Q

Gluconeogenesis:
How is Pyruvate Carboxylase regulated? What is required?

A
  • Acetyl CoA stimulates
  • Requires Biotin
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22
Q

Gluconeogenesis:
What is the mnemonic to remember the important and unique steps in Gluconeogenesis?

A

POP
FFresh
GGouda

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23
Q

What are the important steps in glycogen synthesis?

A

.

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24
Q

What is the rate limiting step Glycogen synthesis?

A

Glycogen synthase
- turning UDP-Glucose into Glycogen

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25
What is the rate limiting step in Glycogenolysis?
Glycogen Phosphorylase - turing Glycogen into Glucose-1-phosphate
26
How is Glycogen Phosphorylase regulated?
- Glucagon, Epinephrine, and cAMP stimulates - Insulin inhibits
27
How is Glycogen synthase regulated?
- Insulin stimulates - glucagon inhibits
28
Glycogen Storage Diseases: Describe Von Gierke Disease: 6 points
.
29
Glycogen Storage Diseases: Describe Cori Disease:
.
30
Glycogen Storage Diseases: Describe Mcardle's and Her's disease:
.
31
Glycogen Storage Diseases: Describe Anderson Disease:
.
32
Glycogen Storage Diseases: Describe Pompe Disease:
Remember HCM
33
Fructose Metabolism: Summarize the Fructose Pathway:
Fruits are Filled with Fructose. They Are God Damn Guicy.
34
Fructose Metabolism: Describe Fructokinase Deficiency:
- fructose in blood and urine - Autosomal recessive - Benign (fructo-kindase deficiency)
35
Fructose Metabolism: Describe Aldolase B deficiency:
- aka Hereditary Fructose Intolerance - increase Fructose-1-phosphate - decrease in ATP, Gluconeogenesis, and Glycogenolysis - Hypoglycemia "Here, you are Fruct Int-irely"
36
Fructose Metabolism: How do you treat Aldolase B deficiency:
Decrease fructose/glucose/sucrose in the diet
37
Galactose Metabolism: Summarize the galactose pathway:
.
38
Galactose Metabolism: Describe Galactokinase Deficiency:
.
39
Galactose Metabolism: Describe Galactokinase-1-Phosphate Uridyltransferase deficiency:
aka Classic Galactosemia Tx: No lactose/galactose in diet
40
Galactose Metabolism: Describe Lactose Intolerance:
.
41
Pyruvate Pathways and Metabolism: What enzyme is responsible for converting Pyruvate to Lactate?
Lactate Dehydrogenase
42
Pyruvate Pathways and Metabolism: What scenarios is Lactate dehydrogenase active?
- infection - hypoxia/ischemia - heart failure
43
Pyruvate Pathways and Metabolism: Which tissues does LDH typical convert Pyruvate into Lactate?
Testes, Lens, WBC, Cornea, Medulla of the kidney, RBC Mneumonic: "Think Lactate When you Can't Make Respirations"
44
Pyruvate Pathways and Metabolism: What is the cofactor for Lactate Dehydrogenase?
Vitamin B3 (Niacin)
45
Pyruvate Pathways and Metabolism: What enzyme is responsible for converting Pyruvate to Alanine? What is the cofactor?
ALT (Alanine transaminase) Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine)
46
Pyruvate Pathways and Metabolism: What is the goal of the Cahill Cycle?
To recycle carbons between Muscle and Liver
47
Pyruvate Pathways and Metabolism: What enzyme converts Pyruvate to Acetyl-CoA for the TCA cycle?
Pyruvate Dehydrogenase - Cofactors B1, B2, B3, B5, Lipoic Acid - Thiamine, Riboflavin, Niacin, Pentothenic Acid
48
Pyruvate Pathways and Metabolism: What are the major differences of producing OAA and Pyruvate compared to Alanine and Lactic Acid?
Forming OAA and Pyruvate and irreversible reaction taken place in the mitochondria, whereas Alanine and Lactic Acid and reversible reactions taken place in the cytosol.
49
HMP Shunt (Pentose Phosphate Pathway): What is the goal of the HMP shunt?
Produce NADPH, required for glutathione reduction, FA synthesis, and Cholesterol synthesis *Reduced Glutathione is required for Free radical detoxification
50
HMP Shunt (Pentose Phosphate Pathway): Describe the HMP shunt pathway:
Just know the importance of the first step for STEP
51
HMP Shunt (Pentose Phosphate Pathway): What does G6PD need to form its product?
NADP+ The reaction produces NADPH
52
HMP Shunt (Pentose Phosphate Pathway): Where does the HMP shunt occur?
53
Glutathione Pathways: What is the goal of Glutathione reductase?
Reduce glutathione (Duh)
54
Glutathione Pathways: What does Glutathione reductase need for it to reduce glutathione?
NADPH
55
Glutathione Pathways: What is the connection between the HMP shunt and the Glutathione Pathway?
56
Glutathione Pathways: What causes oxidative stress?
57
Glutathione Pathways: Describe G6PD Deficiency:
Look for anemia Memory aid: - Take a Bite of the #6 Guarter PounDer with Heinz ketchup
58
TCA/Citric Acid (Krebs) Cycle: What is the goal for the TCA cycle?
Generate NADH and FADH2
59
TCA/Citric Acid (Krebs) Cycle: What is the rate limiting step in the TCA cycle?
Isocitrate Dehydrogenase Turning Isocitrate to alpha-ketoglutarate
60
TCA/Citric Acid (Krebs) Cycle: What stimulates the TCA cycle?
ADP
61
TCA/Citric Acid (Krebs) Cycle: What inhibits the TCA cycle?
ATP, NADH, and FADH2
62
TCA/Citric Acid (Krebs) Cycle: Talk through the TCA cycle: Which reactions produce NADH, which reaction produce FADH2.
63
ETC/ Oxidation Phosphorylation: Which component cannot pump protons into the Intermembrane space?
Complex 2 (succinate-Q oxidoreductase or succinate dehydrogenase) *Must hand the electron to CoQ
64
ETC/ Oxidation Phosphorylation: How does Complex 3 pass the electron to complex 4? (Complex III (ubiquinol-cytochrome c oxidoreductase or cytochrome bc1), and Complex IV (cytochrome c oxidase)
Cytochrome C
65
ETC/ Oxidation Phosphorylation: Summarize Oxidation Phosphorylation:
- Complex I (NADH-Q oxidoreductase) - Complex II (succinate-Q reductase) - Complex III (ubiquinol-cytochrome c oxidoreductase or cytochrome bc1) - Complex IV (cytochrome c oxidase)
66
ETC/ Oxidation Phosphorylation: What medication inhibits Complex I (NADH-Q oxidoreductase)?
Rotenone
67
ETC/ Oxidation Phosphorylation: What medication inhibits Complex III (ubiquinol-cytochrome c oxidoreductase or cytochrome bc1)?
Antimycin
68
ETC/ Oxidation Phosphorylation: What medication inhibits Complex IV (cytochrome c oxidase) and Cytochrome C?
Cyanide and CO
69
ETC/ Oxidation Phosphorylation: What medication inhibits ATP synthase?
Oligomycin and Uncoupling agents (2,4-Dinitrophenol)
70
Describe the ATP yield from Glycolysis, Pyruvate metabolism, and TCA cycle:
71
Amino Acids: List the categories of Amino acids:
Essential, non-essential, acidic, basic, ketogenic, glucogenic, mixed
72
Amino Acids: Name the Essential Amino Acids:
73
Amino Acids: Name the Acidic AAs:
Aspartic Acid and Glutamic Acid
74
Amino Acids: Name the Basic AAs:
Histidine Lysine Arginine "His Leggings Are BASIC"
75
Amino Acids: Name the Ketogenic AAs:
Leucine Lysine "Keto diet: Lamb and Liver"
76
Amino Acids Name the Glucogenic AAs:
Histidine, Methionine, Valine "Glucogenic Diet: Honey, Mango, and Vanilla"
77
Amino Acids: Name the AAs that are considered mixed:
Isoleucine Threonine Tysosine Phenylalanine Mneumonic "PITT" like the show
78
Amino Acids: What are the AAs derivatives that turn into the catecholamines?
Phenylalanine and Tyrosine
79
Amino Acids: What are the AAs derivatives that help make niacin and Serotonin?
Tryptophan
80
Amino Acids: What is the clinical correlation with Tryptophan deficiency?
Hartnup Disease: - Pathophysiology: Decreased resorption of neutral amino acids (Tryptophan). Decreased ability to secondarily convert Tryptophan to Niacin. - Inheritance: Autosomal recessive - Symptoms: Niacin Deficiency (Pellagra) so diarrhea, dementia, and dermatitis, also ataxia and failure to thrive - Findings: Decreased serum tryptophan and Niacin, increased urine Neutral Amino Acids - Tx: Nicotinic Acid (Precursor to NAD+/NADH
81
Amino Acids: What cofactor is needed to turn Histidine to Histamine?
B6 (Pyridoxine)
82
Amino Acids: What cofactor is needed to turn Glycine to Porphyrin?
B6 *Important to make Heme
83
Amino Acids: What cofactor is needed to turn Glutamate to GABA?
B6 *Glutamate also turns into Glutathione only without B6
84
Amino Acids: What three products can Arginine turn to?
Creatine, Urea, NO *NO needs BH4 (tetrahydrobiopterin)
85
Amino Acids: What are the Branched Amino Acids?
Isoleucine Leucine Valine
86
Amino Acids: What enzyme breaks down BCAAs?
Branched Chain Alpha-Ketoacid Dehydrogenase
87
Amino Acids: Describe Maple Syrup Urine Disease:
- Pathophysiology: No Branched chain alpha-ketoacid Dehydrogenase - Findings: Increased BCAAs and Increased Leucine - Inheritance: AR - Symptoms: Syrup-smelling urine, Intellect Disability, Poor oral intake. Mneumonic: " I Love Vermont maple syrup.. can I have a SIP?"
88
Urea Cycle: What is the goal of the urea cycle?
Eliminate ammonia from the body by converting to urea
89
Urea Cycle: Where does the Urea cycle take place?
Ammonia is converted to Urea in the Liver, eliminated in the kidney
90
Urea Cycle: Which reactions of the Urea cycle occurs in the mitochondria of hepatocytes?
1. NH3 + CO2 -> Carbamoyl Phosphate via CP Synthetase 1 (CPS1) 2. CP + Ornithine -> Citrulline via Ornithine Transcarbamylase
91
Urea Cycle: Summarize the Urea cycle: Draw it out of you can
92
Urea Cycle: What is the Rate Limiting Step of the Urea Cycle?
Rxn with CPS1 "You go to CVS if you have problems peeing"
93
Urea Cycle: Describe Ornithine Transcarbamylase Deficiency:
- XLR - Findings: Decreased Ornithine Transcarbamylase, Decrease Cirtulline, Increase CP (carbomyl phosphate), Orotic acid, and ammonia
94
Urea Cycle: What would you see in Hyperammonemia?
- Asterixis (negative Myoclonus) - Cerebral edema: slurred speech, ataxia, AMS, blurred vision, vomiting - Tx: Decrease protein intake, decrease Ammonia via Lactulose (increase GI excretion via diarrhea) and Rifaximin (decrease colonic production)
95
Fatty Acid Synthesis: Name the different types of fatty acids:
- Saturated (No double bonds between carbons) - Unsaturated (presence of double bonds) - Polyunsaturated/Essential Fatty Acids (>2 double bonds), ass. w/ decrease risk of CVD
96
Fatty Acid Synthesis: Name the Essential Fatty acids:
Omega 6: Linoleic Acid Omega 3: Alpha Linolenic Acid (ALA), Eicosapentaenoic Acid (EPA), and Docosahexaenoic Acid (DHA) *ALA must be ingested to convert to EPA and DHA
97
Fatty Acid Synthesis: How does Acetyl Coa escape into the cytoplasm to go through Fatty acid synthesis in the cytoplasm?
It doesn't, Acetyl Coa turns into Citrate then shuttles out of the mitochondria into the cytoplasm
98
Fatty Acid Synthesis: How does Citrate turn back into Acetyl Coa?
ATP Citrate Lyase
99
Fatty Acid Synthesis: Summarize the diagram of FA synthesis: Draw it if you can
100
Fatty Acid Synthesis: What is the rate limiting step to FA synthesis?
Rxn with Acetyl CoA Carboxylase "fatty ACC-is synthesis"
101
Fatty Acid Synthesis: What is the chemical equation for FA Synthesis?
102
Lipid Transport: Forming a Chylomicron How are dietary fats broken down into FFAs, Monoglycerides, and cholesterol?
Salivary Lipase
103
Lipid Transport: Forming a Chylomicron How are surface-optimized fat droplets broken down?
Pancreatic Lipase (SO MUCH STRONGER)
104
Lipid Transport: Forming a Chylomicron What form do breakdown products of fat form in order to enter the enterocytes?
Micelles
105
Lipid Transport: Forming a Chylomicron What product is made in the enterocyte before chylomicron formation?
Triglycerides
106
Lipid Transport: Forming a Chylomicron What are stored in chylomicrons?
Key lipids, Fat soluble vitamins, Cholesterol, and triglycerides. *purpose is for further metabolism
107
Lipid Transport: Forming a Chylomicron Where does the Chylomicron go after it has formed? What receptor is here?
Enterocyte/small intestine to the Lymph *Here is where is interacts with ApoB48 Memory aid: "B48 Bomber drops the chylomicron bomb on the Lymph!"
108
Lipid Transport: Forming a Chylomicron Once the Chylomicron enters systemic circulation, who attached what to the chylomicron?
HDL attaches ApoC2 and ApoE, so as of now the chylomicron has ApoC2, ApoE, and ApoB48
109
Lipid Transport: Forming a Chylomicron What does ApoC2 do?
Activates Lipoprotein Lipase (LPL) to hydrolyze Triglycerides into Fatty Acids *Also activated by insulin "ApoC2 Cuts and Cleaves"
110
Lipid Transport: Forming a Chylomicron What does ApoE do?
Remnant reuptake in hepatocytes "Apo Eats the Remnants"
111
Lipid Transport: Forming a Chylomicron What receptor is on VLDL? Also what is carried?
Receptor is ApoB100 Carries Triglycerides and Cholesterol
112
Lipid Transport: Forming a Chylomicron Does VLDL interact with HDL?
Yes
113
Lipid Transport: Forming a Chylomicron What is the role of IDL?
Intermediate density Lipoprotein forms after VLDL interacts with HDL and later functions to keep ApoE, ApoB100 is also attached at this point of the process *IDL enters the liver for further processing, however, excess IDL converts to LDL and is endocytose into peripheral cells via LDL receptor because of ApoB100. "ApoB100 makes you gain 100 pounds."
114
Lipid Transport: Forming a Chylomicron How is Nascent/Immature HDL turned to mature HDL?
Via enzyme Lecithin-Cholesterol Acyltransferase (LCAT), activated by ApoA1 "ApoA1 Activates Awesome Fat"
115
Lipid Transport: Forming a Chylomicron What is important in distruingishing LDL from HDL?
LDL takes cholesterol from liver to periphery. HDL takes cholesterol from periphery to liver. "HDL = Hepatic DeLivery"

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