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DAT > Biology - Chapter 12: Reproduction and Developmental Biology > Flashcards

Biology - Chapter 12: Reproduction and Developmental Biology Flashcards

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1
Q

Germ cells

A
  • produce gametes via meiosis

- male spermatogonia, female oogonia

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2
Q

Spermatogenesis

A
  • Spermatogonia undergo two meiotic divisions to become spermatids and differentiate into sperm
  • Seminiferous tubules –> epididymis –> vas deferens –> ejaculatory duct –> urethra –> penis
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3
Q

Seminal Vesicle

A
  • secrete fructose (nutrients for ATP)
  • viscous mucus (cleans and lubricates urethra)
  • prostaglandins (cause urethral contractions which propels sperm)
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4
Q

Prostate Gland

A

-alkaline secretions to counteract uterine acidity

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5
Q

Bulbourethral Gland

A

-viscous mucus (cleans and lubricates urethra)

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6
Q

FSH in Males

A

-stimulates sperm development in seminiferous tubules

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7
Q

LH in Males

A

-stimulates Leydig cells to produce testosterone

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8
Q

Testosterone

A
  • Matures sperm

- gives rise to secondary sex characteristics

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9
Q

Ovary

A

-Produces eggs (ovum, ova) that travel through fallopian tube to uterus

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10
Q

Uterus

A
  • Provides ideal environment for fertilized egg to implant and develop
  • 3 layers: perimetrium, myometrium, endometrium (inner, lined with mucus)
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11
Q

Cervix

A

-Narrow opening of uterus leading to vagina

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12
Q

Oogenesis

A

1) Many oogonia produced, small fraction remains and differentiates into primary oocytes (begin meiosis but arrested in prophase I until puberty)
2) At puberty: one egg per month ovulates, completing meiosis I, producing a secondary oocyte (meiosis II) and polar body
3) If fertilization occurs: meiosis II is completed
4) At the end of meiosis II: 2-3 polar bodies and 1 oocyte

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13
Q

FSH in Females

A

-stimulates follicles in ovary to develop as well produce estrogen and progesterone

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14
Q

LH in Females

A

-stimulates ovulation of egg, corpus luteum formation, which produces estrogen and progesterone

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15
Q

Estrogen and Progesterone

A
  • Menstrual cycle and reproduction

- Give rise to female secondary sex characteristics

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16
Q

Menstrual Cycle Phases

A

1) Follicular Phase
2) Ovulation
3) Luteal Phase
4) Implantation/No Implantation

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17
Q

Follicular Phase

A
  • hypothalamus releases gonadotropin-releasing homrone (GnRH)
  • -> anterior pituitary releases LH and FSH
  • -> FSH binds to ovaries and induces follicles to develop
  • -> developing follicles release estrogen
  • -> endometrium thickens
  • -> rapid LH spike –> ovulation
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18
Q

Ovulation Phase

A
  • Egg is released from Graafian follicle
  • -> fimbriae on oviduct catches egg, cilia sweep egg into oviduct –> egg travels down oviduct, awaiting sperm fertilization
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19
Q

Luteal Phase

A
  • follicle develops into corpus luteum (maintained by FSH and LH)
  • -> corpus luteum produces progesterone and estrogen
  • -> uterine lining thickens (prepares for implantation)
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20
Q

If No Implantation occurs…

A
  • LH and FSH levels drop
  • -> corpus luteum can no longer be maintained
  • -> progesterone and estrogen levels drop
  • -> endometrium sloughs off (menstruation)
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21
Q

If Implantation occurs…

A
  • outer layer of placenta produces human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG)
  • -> maintains corpus luteum
  • -> progesterone and estrogen levels maintained
  • -> endometrium remains (no menstruation)
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22
Q

Positive Feedback Loops

A
  • stimulate a pathway to increase production
  • Lactation
  • Childbirth
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23
Q

Negative Feedback Loops

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A
  • inhibit a pathway to decrease production
  • GnRH release stimulates FSH and LH, stimulates testosterone, testosterone inhibits GnRH release, lowering FSH and LH
  • same occurs with estrogen and progesterone in menstrual cycle
24
Q

Fertilization

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A
  • Joining of a haploid sperm and a haploid egg to form a diploid zygote
    1) Capacitation
    2) Acrosomal reaction
    3) Polyspermy Block
    4) Completion of Meiosis II for the Secondary Oocyte
    5) Zygote formation
25
Capacitation
- Final maturation step for sperm prior to fertilization - Triggered by secretions in uterine wall - Destabilizes sperm plasma membrane proteins and lipids which results in preparation of sperm tip and hyperactive state
26
Acrosomal reaction
- Recognition process between sperm and egg before fusion - Ensures same-species fertilization - Sperm eats away into egg
27
Polyspermy Block
- Prevents polyploidy by inhibiting polyspermy (multiple sperms penetrating egg) - Fast block: occurs first, prevents sperm binding - Slow block: zona pellucida impenetrable
28
Completion of Meiosis II for the Secondary Oocyte
- During meiosis II, egg is arrested in metaphase | - After penetration, meiosis in the secondary oocytee continues, resulting in a haploid oocyte and polar body
29
Zygote formation
- Monozygotic twins: identical twins, one zygote splits. Two embryos with identical genetic materials - Dizygotic twins: fraternal twins, two separate eggs fertilized by two separate sperm (different genetic material)
30
Cleavage
- rapid cell division without changing the total mass of the cell - results in smaller cells called blastomeres
31
Axis of Cleavage
- Radial cleavage: cells alligned in vertical axis (deuterostomes) - Spiral cleavage: misaligned cells, deviate from axis (protostomes)
32
Fate of Cells
- Determinate cleavage: blastomeres have decided fate | - Indeterminate cleavage: blastomeres do not have pre-set fate
33
Evenness of Embryo Division
- Holoblastic cleavage: throughout entire embryo, evenly divides embryo, in animals with little yolk (humans, sea urchins, except froggos) - Meroblastic cleavage: partial cleavage, emrbyo not evenly divided, in animals with LOTS of juicy yolk (birds, fish, reptiles), exhibits polarity
34
Morula
- ball of blastomeres | - forms at 12 - 16 cell stage
35
Blastula stage
- hollow cavity - forms at 128 ceell stage - blastocoel is hollow, fluid filled cente
36
Blastocyst stages
- cells of blastula divide and differentiate to form 1) Trophoblast (outer ring of cells) 2) Inner Cell Mass (forms embryo)
37
Trophoblast
- outer ring of cells in blastocyst - forms extraembroynic membranes (amnion, yolk sac, chorion, allantois): supports embryo - implants embryo in uterus - produces HCG (maintains corpus luteum and endometrium)
38
Inner Cell Mass
- forms embryo - differentiates into two layers (bilaminar stage): 1) Hypoblast: partially contributes to yolk sac, degenerates via apoptosis 2) Epiblast: contributes to MAIN EMBRYO, allows for gastrulation to occur
39
Gastrulation
- formation of a trilaminar embryo | - Epiblasts invaginate inwards through primitive streak forming 3 germ layers: endoderm, mesoderm, ectoderm
40
Archenteron
- center cavity | - formed by blastopore
41
Ectoderm
- outer germ layer | - forms: CNS/PNS, ear, eye, nose, skin, enamel of teeth, adrenal medulla
42
Mesoderm
- middle germ layer | - forms: bone and skeleton, muscle, cardiovascular system, gonads, adrenal cortex, spleen, notochord
43
Endoderm
- inner germ layer | - epithelial lining of digestive respiratory, and excretory systems, PLTT( pancreas, liver, thyroid/para, thymus)
44
Organogenesis
-Formation of new organs
45
Neurulation
- nervous system development: 1) Neural plate development 2) neural fold/neural groove appears 3) neural tube formation 4) neural tube differentiates into CNS
46
Totipotent
-stem cell can become any cell
47
Pluripotent
-stem cell can become any of the 3 germ layers
48
Multipotent
-stem cell can only differentiate to specific tissue types
49
Amnion
- Innermost layer | - secretes amniotic fluid (water cushion, protects embryo)
50
Chorion
- Outermost layer - Placental mammals: forms fetal half of the placenta - Egg-laying animals: membrane for gas exchange underneath egg shell
51
Allantois
- sac that buds off of the archenteron - stores waste for disposal - Placental mammals: transports waste to placenta, becomes umbilical cord, forms urinary bladder - Egg-laying animals: initially stores uric acid, later fuses with chorion
52
Yolk sac
- contains yolk (intraembryonic, provides nutrients) - Placental mammals: transient function until placenta develops, first side of blood cell formation - Egg-laying animals: provides nutrients
53
Factors Influencing Development
1) Embryonic Induction 2) Homeotic genes 3) Egg cytoplasm determinant 4) Apoptosis
54
Embryonic Induction
- organizers | - secrete chemicals that influence what neighboring cells become in the future
55
Homeotic genes
- Master controller - turning different gene expressions on/off - Homeobox is a common sequence of ~180 nucleotides that is crucial in animal development
56
Egg Cytoplasm Determminant
-If egg cytoplasm is unevenly distributed, an axis is created, influencing how embryo divides during cleavage
57
Apoptosis
- Programmed cell death important for normal development of fetus - e.g. removing webbing between fingers and preventing cancers

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