Biopsychology Flashcards
(123 cards)
1
Q
What is the nervous system?
A
Main communication system in the body, very fast
2
Q
What is the nervous system made up of?
A
A complex network of specialised nerve cells passing messages using chemicals, neurons and neurotransmitters.
3
Q
What is the CNS made up of?
A
Brain and spinal cord
4
Q
What is the function of the CNS?
A
To pass messages to other parts of the body and receive information from the peripheral nervous system.
5
Q
What is the spinal cord?
A
An extension of the brain that is responsible for reflex actions.
6
Q
What is the PNS ?
A
Peripheral nervous system
7
Q
What is the PNS made up of?
A
Nerve fibres (axons) which are connected to the CNS
8
Q
What is the function of the PNS?
A
Sends information to the CNS from the outside world and transmits messages from the CNS to the muscles and glands in the body.
9
Q
What is the somatic nervous system?
A
-Controls conscious movement
-Recives instructions from the CNS (motor cortex) for muscle movement
10
Q
What is the autonomic nervous system?
A
-Controls unconscious bodily functions like breathing
-Transmits info to and from organs
-Acts more slowly than the SNS
11
Q
What is the autonomic nervous system made up of?
A
-Unmyelinated nerve fibres
-Sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system
12
Q
What is the somatic nervous system made up of?
A
Myelinated cells
13
Q
What is the endocrine system?
A
Communication system that instructs glamds to release hormones to the bloodstream
14
Q
Is the endocrine faster or slower than the nervous system?
A
Slower but still powerful
15
Q
What is a hormone?
A
A chemical substance that circulates the bloodstream and affects target organs, produced in large quantities.
16
Q
What does the hypothalamus do?
A
Stimulates the release of hormones from the pituitary gland.
17
Q
What affects do hormones have?
A
Affects cells in several organs leading to large responses.
18
Q
What’s the adrenal medulla and its function?
A
-Produces adrenaline and noradrenaline
-Key role in fight or flight response
19
Q
What’s the adrenal cortex and its function?
A
-Produces cortisol
-Triggers the release of glucose to provide the body with energy and suppressing the immune system
20
Q
What’s the testes and their function?
A
-Release testosterone
-Responsible for male sex characteristics during puberty and muscle growth.
21
Q
What’s are the ovaries and their function?
A
-Release estrogen
-Regulates the female reproductive system, pregnancy and menstrual cycle
22
Q
What is a neuron?
A
Nerve cells that are part of the nervous system.
23
Q
How do they transmit information?
A
-Electrically through action potentials
-Chemically through neurotransmitters
24
Q
What do neurons consist of?
A
Typically a cell body, dendrites and an axon
25
What are dendrites and what do they do?
They receive information from other neurons, connected to the cell body.
26
What is the function of the cell body?
Contains all the genetic information of a cell.
27
What is an axon?
Carries the impulse from the cell body to the terminal.
28
What is an axon terminal?
The end of the axon, contains neurotransmitters.
29
What is a myelin sheath?
A fatty coating surrounding the axon, its purpose is to speed up communication.
30
Function of a sensory neuron
Carries messages from the sense receptors in the PNS to CNS
31
What size axons and dendrites do sensory neurons have?
Long dendrites and short axons
32
Do all messages go to the brain?
No, some terminate in the spinal cord to allow reflex actions to occur quickly.
33
Function of a motor neuron
Connects the CNS to effectors such as muscles and glands.
34
What size axons and dendrites do motor neurons have?
Short dendrites, long axons
35
Function of a relay neuron
Connects the sensory neurons to the motor neurons or other relay neurons
36
What size axons and dendrites do relay neurons have?
Short dendrites, short axons
37
Where are relay neurons found?
Only in the brain and spinal cord
38
What is synaptic transmission?
The process in which one neuron communicates with another by releasing neurotransmitters to diffuse across the synapse
39
What is the synapse?
The gap at the end of one neuron and the dendrite or cell body of another
40
What is an action potential?
An electrical impulse, charged
41
What are the 1st and 2nd stages of synaptic transmission?
1) An action potential travels down the axon of the pre synaptic neuron
2) When it reaches the terminal buttons vesicles migrate and bind with the presynaptic membrane, then triggering neurotransmitters
42
What are the 3rd and 4th stages of synaptic transmission?
3) Neurotransmitters diffuse across the synapse and bind with post synaptic receptors like a lock and key
4) Once activated the receptors produce excitatory or inhibitory effects upon the posy synaptic neuron
43
What is the 5th stage of synaptic transmission?
5) Neurotransmitters are released back into the synapse and go through reputake or metabolism
44
What is the function of serotonin?
-To regulate mood (well being and happiness)
-Low levels are associated with depression, OCD and anxiety
45
What is the function of dopamine?
Pleasure, addiction and motivation
46
What is the function of GABA?
Has a calming effect
47
What's special about GABA ?
Is the only neurotransmitter that's always inhibitory
48
What is inhibition ?
-"Off switches"
- A negative charge at the post synaptic membrane creating an inhibitory postsynaptic potential [IPSP]
49
What is excitation?
-"on switches"
-A positive charge at the post synaptic membrane creating an excitatory postsynaptic potential [EPSP]
50
What is summation?
A nerve cell that can recive EPSP and IPSP at the same time. Summation is the net total of IPSP+EPSP determining if the cell fires.
51
What is Localisation of Function?
The idea that all functions are performed by different regions of the brain.
52
How does localisation of function contrast to a holistic veiw?
The holistic theory believes that ever part of the brain works together for every function.
53
What is the outer layer of the brain called?
Cerebral Cortex
54
What are the 4 lobes of the brain ?
Frontal, Parietal, Temporal and Occipital
55
What is Broca's area?
The area of the brain controlling the production of language
56
What is Wernicke's area?
The area of the brain responsible for controlling language comprehension
57
What is Broca's aphasia?
Broca's aphasia occurs when there is damage to Broca's area, it is characterised by slow laborious speech that lacks fluency.
58
What is Wernike's aphasia?
Wernicke's aphasia occurs when there is damage to Wernicke's area. It is characterised by a difficulty forming coherent sentences and understanding language.
59
Limitations of Localisation of Function
-Critcised by a holistic veiw, argues it's biologically reductionist.
-Fails to account for differences, unable to generalise between genders and different brain structures
60
Strengths of Localisation of Function
-Case study of HM where hippocampus was removed and procedural tasks stayed but STM and LTM were damaged.
-Evidence, Tulving revealed that semantic and episodic memories are formed in different places
61
What does plasticity mean?
The brain can change over time as a result of new experiences and learning.
62
What is the fight or flight response ?
A sequence triggered when the body prepares itself for defence or attack.
63
What phrase describes fight or flight ?
“Makes the body prepared”
64
What is the role of the amygdala?
Is the body’s threat sensor, will activate the SAM if threat is detected.
65
What is SAM?
Sympathomedullary Pathway
66
Which two systems work together in SAM?
The Nervous and Endocrine system.
67
What is the process of the Sympathomedullary pathway?
Hypothalamus (activates)>Sympathetic nervous system (triggers)>Adrenal Medulla (releases)>Adrenaline and Noradrenaline(facilitates)>fight or flight response.
68
What is the role of adrenaline?
Increases heart rate to provide more blood to muscles, breathing becomes more rapid to take in more oxygen, blood sugar is raised to provide energy, diversion of blood occurs to conserve energy and sweating increases to cool the body.
69
What are the limitations to the fight or flight response?
-Doesn’t apply as much to current life as there is less physical threat and response.
-Is an incomplete explanation
70
What is hemispheric lateralisation?
The idea that the two hemispheres are functionally different.
71
What is the difference between localisation and lateralisation?
Localisation is function in a specific region whereas lateralisation is function in one hemisphere.
72
Which hemisphere processes the left visual field?
Right hemisphere
73
Which hemisphere processes the right visual field?
Left hemisphere
74
Which hemisphere is language largely processed in ?
Left
75
Which hemisphere is facial recognition processed in ?
Right
76
Who conducted split brain research and what is it?
Roger Sperry, where the corps callousness is split in patients with epilepsy to prevent the spread electrical discharge.
77
What did split brain research test ?
The ability to see a stimulus presented centrally for 0.1s
78
What were the findings and conclusions of split brain research?
-Discovered the differences between hemispheres
-Has shown the brain is not split into specific regions for specific tasks (disproves localisation of function)
79
What are the strengths of hemispheric lateralisation?
-Evidence, Luck et al. Patients were twice as fast at identifying the odd one out
-Evidence, Kingstone et al. Processing is better individually.
80
What are the limitations of hemispheric lateralisation?
-Only studies those with severe epilepsy
-Low population validity (11 patients)
-Low internal validity due to controlled conditions
-Gazzaniga disproves theories
-Has had a big impact on ‘pop psychology’ as it has misinformed the public.
81
How do babies demonstrate plasticity and how does this compare to adults?
As an infant the brain has around 15,000 neurons compared to adults having around 7,500. As we age connections that are rarely used are deleted, this is synaptic pruning.
82
What is functional recovery?
A form of plasticity where after damage from trauma the brain redistributes functions to undamaged areas.
83
What are 4 examples of the effect of impoverished/enriched environments and the effect upon plasticity ?
-Romanian orphans, suffered under stimulation and therefore a lack of neural development.
-Davidson et al, Tibetan monks had increased gamma activity (neuronal activity) when meditating.
-Roseweig et al, neurons and cerebral cortex were thicker in enriched.
-Boyke et al, found natural decline with age.
84
Maguire’s study of plasticity.
>Aim-determine if patients with extensive navigational skills have increased volume in the hippocampus.
>Method-used 16 right handed male taxi drivers compared to 50 normal males
>Findings-taxi drivers had increased volume of the posterior hippocampus
85
How does functional recovery suggest plasticity?
Recovery after trauma to the brain is more likely at a younger age where plasticity is greater, they are and example of each other.
86
How does neural reorganisation support plasticity?
Healthy brain areas takeover the function of damaged areas (neural reorganisation) this is suggested to be spontaneous.
87
What is Neurogenesis?
The brain is able to retire and reorganise by forming new neurons and synaptic connections close to the damaged areas.
88
What are the 4 man ways of studying the brain?
fMRI, EEG, ERP and Post-Mortem
89
What are the two types of resolution when analysing imaging types?
Temporal and spatial.
90
What is spatial resolution?
The smallest feature or measurement a scanner can detect
91
What is temporal resolution?
The accuracy of the scanner over time and how quickly the scanner detects changes.
92
How does fMRI work?
Through neurovascular coupling, it is dependent on changes in the blood oxygenation levels of the brain.
93
What are the strengths of fMRI?
High spatial resolution
Non-invasive
Versatile
Safe
94
What are the limitations of fMRI?
Low temporal resolution
Very expensive
Indirect measure
Movements artefacts
May be inaccessible due to metal
95
How does EEG work ?
Use of electrodes to gather electrical activity of he brain and its frequency through action potentials.
96
What are the 4 types of EEG waves?
Alpha, Beta, Theta and Delta
97
What are the strengths of EEG?
High temporal resolution
Non invasive
Low cost to researchers
Available and accessible to large population
98
What are the limitations of EEG?
Low spatial resolution
Susceptible to artefacts
Limited to detecting surface activity
99
What are ERP’s ?
Event-Related potentials, look at isolated neural responses.
100
What are the strengths of ERPs?
Partly addresses the limitations of EEGs
Has more specificity
High temporal resolution
Good for measuring cognitive defects
101
What are the limitations of ERPs?
Lack of standardisation between studies
Extraneous variables may interfere
102
How is post-mortem used ?
Analyses the brain after death, usually in those with rare disorders or defects.
103
What are the strengths of post-mortem?
Provides a vital foundation of understanding
Helped discover Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas
Improves medical hypothesis
104
What are the limitations of post-mortem?
Difficult to establish correlation/causation
Raises ethical issues due to lack of consent before death
Limited availability
Selection bias may occur
105
What is a biological rhythm?
A cyclical pattern within a biological system
106
What is the biological basis for the sleep-wake cycle?
The SCN (super-chiasmatic nucleus) is a major endogenous pacemaker.
SCN>Pineal gland>increased melatonin (due to darkness)>sleep
107
What is the role of homeostasis in the circadian rhythm?
The maintenance of constant internal environment, when the body has been awake a while homeostasis tells the body there is need for sleep due to energy consumption.
108
What are other circadian rhythms ?
Body temperature- follows the sleep cycle
109
What supportive evidence is there for sleep-wake cycles?
>Siffre-returned from a month long stay underground living the date was earlier, absence of external cues
>Aschoff & Wever-studied pots who spent 4 weeks in WWII kept 24hr cycles
>Ralph-study on hamsters showing that circadian rhythms are primarily determined by evolutionary biological structures
110
What are the limitations of sleep-wake cycle studies?
Individual differences such as morning/evening people
Methodological issues either study such as bias and lack of internal validity
Temperature may be more important than light levels
111
Example of an Infradian rhythm
The menstrual cycle, is governed by hormone levels
112
Describe a study of infradian rhythms
-Quasi experiment of 29 female uni students found that 68% of ppts cycles were altered by inhaling pheromones of other women.
-Experiment lacks internal validity and causality
113
Describe a study investigating effect of EZs on infradian rhythms
Reinburg (1967) examined a woman who spend 3 month in a cave with artificial light, found her cycle shortened to 25.7 days. Demonstrates effect of external factors.
114
What is an example of a disorder that has an infradian rhythm ?
Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD) which is usually triggered by shorter daylight hours. It’s believed SAD is caused by melatonin levels and dopamine levels.
115
How many stages of the sleep cycle are there?
5
116
How frequently do the sleep stages repeat ?
Every 90 minutes
117
What is an ultradian rhythm ?
A cycle that occurs more than once within 24hrs
118
What is an infradian rhythm?
Cycle that occurs less than every 24hrs
119
What are the stages of sleep and their meaning ?
Stage 1&2- light sleep where you are easily awoken, alpha and theta waves.
Stage 3&4- deeper sleep with delta waves.
Stage 5- REM sleep, the deepest associated with dreaming.
120
What is an exogenous zeitgaber ?
External influences e.g.daylight
121
What are endogenous pacemakers?
Internal biological clocks
122
What study shows the role of the SCN as an endogenous pacemaker?
DeCoursey et al, study in which the SCN of 30 chipmunks were destroyed. Their sleep-wake cycle disappeared and a large number of chipmunks were killed.
123
What social cues impact the sleep-wake cycle ?
-Jet lag, adapting to social cues such as eating and sleeping times
-Infant sleep-wake cycle, is imposed by adults meal times…
