Biopsychology Flashcards

Question

mylein sheath

Answer 1

Myelin Sheath - fatty layer, protects the axon, speeds up electrical transmission of impulse

Answer 2

carries impulses away from the cell body, down the length of the neuron

Answer 3

branch-like structures that protrude from the cell body and carry nerve impulses from neighbouring neurons towards the cell body

Answer 4

-pupils dilate -increased heart rate and blood pressure -increased alertness -increase blood flow -reduced digestive activity to conserve activity

Answer 5

inhibitory neurotransmitters (e.g. serotonin) reduce the potential difference across the postsynaptic membrane through the closure of the voltage-dependent sodium ion channels, reducing the likelihood that an action potential will be generated. * Excitatory neurotransmitters (e.g. dopamine) increase the potential difference across the postsynaptic membrane through triggering the opening of more voltage-dependent sodium ion channels, increasing the likelihood that an action potential will be generated.

Answer 6

-biopsychologists assume that behaviour and experiences are caused by activity in the nervous system -the nervous system transmits signals for communication via the billions of nerve cells (neurons) it has -the nerve cells communicate with each other through electrical and chemical messages within the body and brain

Answer 7

nerve cells that process and transmit messages through electrical and chemical signals (conduct nerve impulses)

Answer 8

sensory relay motor

Answer 9

-carry messages from PNS to CNS (impulse to spinal cord) -long dendrite -short axon

Answer 10

-connecting nerve -connects the sensory neuron to motor or other relay neurons -short dendrite -short axon

Answer 11

-connect CNS to effectors such as muscles or glands -short dendrite -long axon

Answer 12

-1) A stimulus is detected by sense organs in the peripheral nervous system 2) Sense organs convey a message along a sensory neuron 3)Message reaches CNS 4) CNS connects with a relay neuron 5) Relay neuron transfers message to a motor neuron 6) Motor neuron carries message to an effector (such as a muscle) 7) This causes a reflex response (e.g. causes muscles in knee to contract --> knee moves or jerks - knee-jerk response)

Answer 13

Synapse – junction/gap between 2 neurons Synaptic transmission --> process by which neighboring neurons communicate with eachother

Answer 14

-chemicals that are released from a synaptic vesicle into the synapse by neurons -they affect the transfer of an impulse to another nerve or muscle -these neurotransmitters are "taken back up" into the terminal buttons of neurons through the process of reuptake or are broken down by an enzyme

Answer 15

occurs when a neuron sends information down an axon away from the cell body. An actional potential is an explosion of electrical activity which means a stimulus causes the resting potential to move forward

Answer 16

Synaptic connections can be excitatory or inhibitory – difference lies in the action of the neurotransmitter at the post synaptic receptor -normal brain function depends upon a regulatory balance between both synaptic connections

Answer 17

Excitatory – makes it more likely that the next neuron will fire e.g nonadrenaline --> EPSP (excitatory post synaptic potential e.g if nonadrenaline binds to post synaptic receptors it will cause an electrical charge in the cell membrane which results in an EPSP

Answer 18

Inhibitory – makes it less likely that the next neuron will fire e.g serotonin --> IPSP (inhibitory post synaptic potential)

Answer 19

1) nerve impulse travels down an axon 2) nerve impulse reaches the synaptic terminal 3) this triggers the release of neurotransmitters 4) the neurotransmitters are fired into the synaptic gap 5) neurotransmitter binds with receptors on the dendrite of the adjacent neuron 6) if successfully transmitted the neurotransmitter is taken up by the post-synaptic neuron 7) the message will continue to be passed this way via electrical impulses

Answer 20

-the nervous system breaks down even further -two divisions of the autonomic nervous system are: -sympathetic branch (responsible for fight or flight response) -parasympathetic branch (brings body back to normal after fight or flight response) Purpose of the fight or flight response is to enable the body to take action and protect itself in dangerous situations. Ensures a reaction to potentially life threatening experience Fight or flight response --> innate and automatic mode for survival

Answer 21

-dilates pupils -inhibits flow of saliva -accelerates heartbeat -dilates bronchi -inhibits secretion and peristalsis -conversion of glycogen to glucose -secretion of adrenaline and noradrenaline -inhibits bladder contraction

Answer 22

-constricts pupils -stimulates flow or saliva -slows heartbeat -constricts bronchi -stimulates release of bile -contracts bladder

Answer 23

1) Situation is appraised and perceived as stressful by amygdala 2) Hypothalamus is alerted whch recognises the stress is acute so activates the sympathomeduallary (SAM) pathway 3) This activates the sympathetic branch of the autonomic nervous system 4) This then stimulates the adrenal medulla which is part of the adrenal gland 5) The adrenal medulla secretes the hormones adrenaline and noradrenaline into the bloodstream 6) this prepares the body for fight or flight and as such causes a number of physical bodily changes e.g dialates pupils 7) However, the body cannot maintain this increased level of activity so after time the parasympathetic branch of the nervous system is activated (returns body back to normal resting rate)

Answer 24

localisation is more reductionist and states that some parts of the brain have particular purposes whereas holism refers to a theory stating that various brain parts are not localized and cannot get differentiated

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outer layer that lies on top of the cerebrum. It carries out essential functions of your brain such as memory, thinking, learning and reasoning

Answer 26

-The theory that specific areas of the brain are responsible for different behaviours, processes or activities (physical and psychological functions)

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-the brain is divided into 2 hemispheres (left and right) -language areas are only found in the left hemisphere

Answer 28

-frontal lobe -temporal lobe -parietal lobe -occipital lobe -motor cortex -auditory cortex -wernicke's area -broca's area -visual area -somatosensory area

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Frontal lobe --> Front of head (left side) --> Home of personality and mood e.g voluntary movement, excessive language, higher cognitive functions (CONSCIOUSNESS)

Answer 30

Temporal lobe --> Above cerebellum --> auditory information --> manage emotions, store memories and understand language (AUDITORY AND MEMORY)

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Occipital lobe --> Right side of temporal lobe --> visual functions --> interpretate information from the eyes (VISUAL)

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Parietal lobe --> Right side of frontal lobe --> respond to sensory information (SENSORY AND MOTOR)

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Cerebellum --> corpus callosum -> enable messages to move from left and right hemisphere. Regulates higher intellectual processes. Outermost layer called cerebral cortex (grey matter)

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Motor area --> region in frontal lobe involved in regulating movement

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Broca's area --> Area of frontal lobe in left hemisphere responsible for speech production. If damaged can lead to speech aphasia

Answer 36

Auditory area --> Located in temporal lobe and concerned with analysis of speech based information

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Wernicke's area --> Located in temporal lobe in left hemisphere responsible for language comprehension

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Visual area --> Part of occipital lobe that receives and processes visual information

Answer 39

Somatosensory area --> area of parietal lobe that processes sensory information such as touch

Answer 40

-brain scan evidence --> Petersen et al --> Discovered Wernicke's area as active during a listening task and Broca's area was active during a reading task --> objective method for measuring brain activity -neurosurgical evidence -> lobotomy -Case study evidence --> Phineas Gage --> damage to frontal lobe has impact on personality

Answer 41

-Reductionist --> plasticity --> brain attempts to recognise itself and recover lost function when damage is done e.g stroke patients (law of equipotentiality) -Case studies cannot be generalised -Lashley's research --> higher cognitive functions are distributed more holistically. He removed 10-50% of a rats brain and no area was proven to be anymore important, all was required to learn to maze – learning is too complex to be localised

Answer 42

-rod went through his left cheek due to an explosion damaging his frontal lobe -he vomited a teacupful of brain, dropped in an out of a coma, has hemorrhages and epilepsy -damage to personality --> turned from someone calm and reserved to someone rude and quick-tempered. -disrespectful to colleagues, unable to accept advice -impulsive and blasphemous -supports localisation theory

Answer 43

-client and the therapist work together -list situations from provoking least to most anixety -client can only move onto next stage if they have managed to stay calm at previous ones -relaxation techniques = meditation and breathing exercises

Answer 44

-define localisation of function -2 hemispheres and 4 lobes -Brocas and Wernicke's area -Phineas gage -holistic theory -summarise point

Answer 45

connections

Answer 46

Plasticity = Refers to the brain’s ability to physically and functionally adapt and change in response trauma, new experiences and learning

Answer 47

left side of the body

Answer 48

-Brain plasticity --> brain can grow new facts and association. Our brain/neurons can develop and learn new things past adulthood -the capacity of living things mold themselves in new conditions --> brain cells and synapses change connections everyday. -number of synapses peaks when your young and learning

Answer 49

Pruning --> weaking and removal of connections that you no longer need (connections are lost due to lack of use)

Answer 50

Bridging --> where new connections are created due to use and new stimulus

Answer 51

-Maguire (2000) Taxi drivers --> Found a significantly larger volume of grey matter (connections for spatial awareness) in posterior hippocampus (associated with spatial navigation skills) than in a control group. The result of complex knowledge test by taxi drivers alters the structure of taxi drivers brains (more neuronal pathways) (longer drivers = more structural difference in brains)

Answer 52

-Meditation --> (evidence for bridging as it involves training the mind to find relief and contentment). Davidson et al 2004 studied Tibetan monks and compared them to non-meditation controls. Each group was told to meditate for a short period of time and were fitted with an electrical sensor. Monk group showed higher levels of gamma activity which coordinates neurons.

Answer 53

Functional recovery after trauma --> a form of plasticity following damage through trauma. The brains ability to redistribute or transfer functions usually performed by a damaged area to an other undamaged area

Answer 54

axonal sprouting, reformation of blood vessels, recruitment of homologous areas

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Axonal sprouting --> the growth of new nerve endings which connect with other undamaged nerve cells to form new neuronal pathways

Answer 56

-Reformation of blood vessels --> facilitates the growth of new neural pathways

Answer 57

Recruitment of homologous areas --> similar areas on the opposite side of the brain to perform specific tasks e.g if Broca's area was damaged on left side of the brain the right side equivalent would carry on its function

Answer 58

-3 year old girl with epileptic seizures that took over her brain causing her to almost loose control of her left arm -right hemisphere was damaged -she has surgery which removed her right hemisphere and fill it with spinal fluid -had almost all motor functions post-operation except slight paralysis in her left hand -This shows evidence for plasticity and functional recovery as her left side of brain connected almost immediately (recuitment of homolgous areas)

Answer 59

-Practical application of neurorehabilitation --> following illness or injury spontaneous recovery seems to decrease so physical therapy may be needed to maintain improvements in function e.g motor therapy. This shows that although the brain may have the capacity to "fix itself" this process requires intervention to be completley successful. -Support from animal studies --> David Hubel and Weisel involved sewing one eye of a kitten shut and analysing the brains cortical responses. It was found that the area of the visual cortex associated with the shut eye was not idle but continued in the other eye. (supports homologous areas) -Case study evidence – Jody Miller -Cognitive reserve is the level of education a person has attained and how long they have been in education. Research suggests that an increased cognitive reserve increases the likelihood of making a disability-free recovery (DFR) after trauma, due to increased rates of neuroplasticity. For example, Schneider et al (2014) found that of the 769 patients studied, 214 achieved DFR after 1 year. Of those, 50.7% had between 12 8 and 15 years of previous education and 25.2% had more than 16 years. This suggests that individuals who have been in education for a longer time may have developed the ability to form neuronal connections at a high rate, and therefore experience high levels of functional recovery, demonstrating positive plasticity.

Answer 60

-Negative plasticity --> brains ability to rewire itself can have maladaptive consequences. E.g Prolonged drug use has been shown to result in poorer cognitive functioning as well as increased risk of dementia (Medina 2007). Ramachadndran and Hirsten found 60-80% of amputees experience phantom limb syndrome. -Age --> functional plasticity tends to reduce with age and has a greater propensity for reorganisation in childhood as it is constantly learning. However, it is still possible when combined with physical therapy e.g motor movements (Bezzola) showed that 40 hours of golf training can lead to increased neural represenations of movement -concept of cognitive reserve --> persons educational attainment may influence how well brain functionality adapts after injury

Answer 61

-Lateralisation --> the fact that two halves of the brain are functionally different and each hemisphere has functional specializations

Answer 62

-processes information from the right side of the body -language center of the brain -controls right hand -receives information from right visual field -explanations and reasoning

Answer 63

-processes information from left side of the body -focuses on visuo-spatial tasks -controls left hand -receives information from left visual field -attention + facial recognition + no language

Answer 64

Background --> Sperry's study involved a unique group of individuals who had undergone a conmissatoumy (corpus collosum removed) to control frequent epileptic seizures – quasi experiment Aims: -what happens when two halves of the brain are disconnected -do the hemispheres perform different functions -does each hemisphere have its own memories, perceptions and concepts

Answer 65

-image of an image or word was projected on an individuals right or left visual field to be processed by left/right hemisphere. This mean that information could not be conveyed from one hemisphere to the other -11 eplieptic patients -patients had one of their eyes closed so information would not be received by both eyes -stimuli flashed on screen for 1/10th of a second -in the corpus callosum of a normal brain the imahe would be immeditatley shared -2 groups (control and real)

Answer 66

-if the stimulus was exposed to the right visual field then it would be processed by the left hemisphere and the patient would say the word -if the stimulus was exposed to the left visual field it would be processed by the right hemisphere and the patient would write the word with their left hand -The right hemisphere could match a list of faces to a given stimulus -if an object was placed into the patients right hand they would be unable to identify it was there but if it was placed in the left hand the patient would be able to identify it -picture shown to left visual field = cannot describe or notice it

Answer 67

-when two halves of the brain are disconnected they cannot interact and perform at the same time -the left and right hemisphere perform different functions -Each hemisphere has its own perceptions and memories -one half the brain doesn’t know what the other half is doing (2 separate streams of consciousness) -gives evidence to lateralisation

Answer 68

-split brain patient work has provided a considerable amount of research into lateralisation. Left = language, right = visuo-spatial -Sperry's research used controlled conditions = valid and reliable + standardized --> time of image presented was controlled and the same for all ppts -Clearly demonstrated lateralisation of function = Split-brain research was pivotal in establishing the differences in functions between the two hemispheres, and so opposing the holistic theory of brain function. The left hemisphere was demonstrated as being dominant for language tasks, due to containing language centres, whereas the right hemisphere was demonstrated as being dominant for visuo-spatial tasks. Therefore, this suggests that the left hemisphere is the analyser, whereas the right hemisphere is the synthesiser, and so there are marked differences between the two. -supporting research evidence -spung psychological debate

Answer 69

-Szaflarski et all --> language became more lateralised to left hemisphere with increasing age in children and adolescents but after 25 lateralisation decreased --> changes with aging and become more bilateral in healthy older adults --> lateralisation only in young adults -Overemphasis on difference between hemispheres (much more intricate and complex than polar differences) -Gazzangia --> split brain research = disconfirmed --> right hemisphere was unable to handle rudimentary language. J.W. developed the capacity to speak out the right hemisphere and left -Sperry's research lacks population validity = cannot be generalised --> The epileptic patients had been taking anti-epilepsy medications for extended and different periods of time, which may have affected their ability to recognise objects and match words, due to causing cerebral neuronal changes. Secondly, although all patients had undergone a commissurotomy, there may have been differences in the exact procedures e.g. differing extent of the lesioning of the corpus callosum. This would have affected the degree to which the two hemispheres could relay information between themselves. Therefore, these two confounding variables had not been controlled, meaning that the lateralised functions may be examples of unreliable causal conclusions. -sperry's research lacks ecological validity = in real life situations patients can composenate by having same experiences rather can viewing separate tasks

Answer 70

nerve endings that connect the left and right hemisphere

Answer 71

verbalise things and language comprehension

Answer 72

-circadian rhythm --> a type of biological rhythm subject to a 24 hour cycle which regulates a number of body processes such as sleep/wake cycle or changes in core body temperature

Answer 73

-main regulator for circadian rhythms are found in the hypothalamus (manage body temp, hunger etc) -SCN cells respond to light and dark -> alertness sharpens at light (morning) -disruption to natural rhythms can lead to health conditions e.g obesity

Answer 74

-light provides primary input acting as external cue for sleeping or waking -light is detected by eye which sends messages to SCN cells -The SCN then uses information to coordinate the ability of the entire circadian rhythm w homeostasis -human body temperature is lowest at 4:30am and highest at 6pm. Sleep occurs when core body temperature starts to drop

Answer 75

-internal biological clocks --> endogenous pacemakers and external changes in the environment are known as exogenous zeitgebers -ultradian = occur many times in one day Intradian = longer than 1 day

Answer 76

Hormones affected by circadium rhythms = melatonin (causes drowsiness and lowers body temp) and cortisol (makes us feel awake)

Answer 77

-self styled caveman who spent several extended periods underground to study the effects of his own biological rhythms when deprived of natural light and sound -2 months in cave and recreated 10 years later for 6 months -his biological rhythm settled down to one that was just beyond the visual 24 hours though he did continue to fall asleep on a regular schedule (body clock was 25hr) -bodys day is not identical to 24hr day -internal alarm clock even when there is no influence from other things

Answer 78

Aschoff and Wever --> convinced a group of participants to spend 4 weeks in a WW2 bunker deprived or natural light. All but one of these participants had their cycle extended to 29 hours.

Answer 79

-Practical application to shift work --> shift work has been found to lead desynchronization of circadian rhythms and can lead to adverse cognitive and physiological effects. E.g night shift workers suffer concentration lapse at 6am which increase the likelihood of accidents and more likely to suffer from heart disease. This has economic implications in terms of mainting worker productivity and preventing accidents in the workplace -Pharmacokinetics application --> by understanding the impact of circadium rhythms on health it can help determine the best time to administer drug treatments. E.g risk of heart attack is greatest in early morning so drugs are taken at night and not released at dawn would be the most effective -Support from cave study --> Michael Siffre and Wever and Schoff = research application --> suggsests that the body's internal clock is set 24-25 hours in the absence of external cues and is intolerant of any major alterations to sleep and wake cycles such as shift work

Answer 80

-Issues with case study evidence --> impossible to generalise to whole populations of people due to individual differences e.g Siffre noted that he went into the cave at 60yr and his body responded differently with his clock following more of a 48hr cycle. Czesler found that cycles can vary as much as 13-65 hours. Age and gender have diff impacts on ciracdium rhythms -Poor control in studies --> exposure to artificial lights and phones was not controlled – it was assumed only natural light has an influence on biological rhythms but research by Czeisler found that dim artificial lighting could adjust circadim rhythm between 22-28 hours. This means that results of original studies may lack validity

Answer 81

-The ultradian cycle has a shorter period than a day but is longer than an hour. It repeats during a 24-hour circadian day. e.g sleep-wake cycle

Answer 82

-Infradian rhythms are biological rhythms that occur in a repeating cycle that lasts longer than 24 hours e.g mensturation

Answer 83

Example of endogenous system = sleep-wake cycle Example of an exogenous zeitgerber = light

Answer 84

menstrual cycle SAD

Answer 85

-governed by monthly changes in hormone levels which regulate ovulation -28 day cycle (24-35 day range) -rise of oestrogen causes the drop and release of an egg (ovulation) -progesterone thickens the womb lining for pregnancy -it is an endogenous system but can be influenced by exogenous factors

Answer 86

SAD (seasonal affective disorder): -persistent low mood, lack of activity or interest in life -"winter blues" -> depressive symptoms triggered by winter and shorter daylight hours -circannul rhythm subject to a yearly cycle. Can also be classed as a circadian rhythm due to disruption of sleep-wake cycle -melatonin = implicated cause of SAD -Seasonal affective disorder is an example of the influence of endogenous pacemakers on the circadian sleep-wake cycle. SAD is an infradian disorder caused by disruption to the sleep-wake cycle, and commonly occurs in the winter. Longer nights means that more melatonin is secreted from the pituitary gland, via the endocrine system, which changes the production of melatonin, leading to feelings of loneliness and depression.

Answer 87

-last less than 24 hours like the sleep cycle -sleep has 5 stages that occur throughout the night. Vary in length depending on age -broadly speaking the complete cycle lengthens with age to 90 minutes

Answer 88

Aim = investigate brain activity change throughout night time sleep Method = 9 Participants (7 male and 2 female) were asked to report to the lab at bedtime where they were connected to an EEG. EEG took measurements throughout their time asleep all night. Participants were asked not to drink caffeniated drinks the day before their sleep was investigated Findings = everyone had periods of REM everynight. Higher incidents of dream recall when ppts were awakened during REM periods of sleep. If awake at other periods then few reports of dreaming. REM varied according to dream type and mirrored rapid eye movements Conclusion = evidence to support stages of sleep. REM in stage 5 --> brain activity vairies on how vivid dreams are

Answer 89

One Light sleep (length in each stage varies between 5 and 15 mins) (4-5%) -> more rhythmic (alpha waves) + theta waves -occasional muscle twitching -muscle activity slows

Answer 90

Two Light sleep (45-55%) -> brain does less complicated tasks -slight decrease in body temperature -heart rate slows

Answer 91

Deep sleep (body makes repairs) (4-6%) -> brain begins to generate slow delta waves

Answer 92

Very deep sleep (12-55%) -> delta waves which are slower + greater amplitude -rhythmic breathing -limited muscle activity

Answer 93

15mins initially, lengthening throughout the night (less time spent in other stages). Brain waves speed up (20-25%) -> brain activity speeds up (dreaming) -rapid eye movement -breathing = rapid and shallow -muscles relax -heart rate increases

Answer 94

-Research support + evolutionary basis --> McClinktock studied 29 women with a history of irregular periods -> conducted a study to see if there are external influences regulating the menstrual cycle -> they got a number of women who were ovulating or about to ovulate to wear a pad under their arms to absorb sweat and then gave other women to sniff. --> When ppts inhaled secretions from women who were about to ovulate, their menstrual cycles became shorter and secretions from after ovulation caused longer menstrual cycles. 68% women experienced changes in cycle Finally, evidence supports the role of melatonin in SAD. Terman (1988) found that the rate of SAD is more common in Northern countries where the winter nights are longer. For example, Terman found that SAD affects roughly 10% of people living in New Hampshire (a northern part of the US) and only 2% of residents in southern Florida. These results suggest that SAD is in part affected by light (exogenous zeitgeber) that results in increased levels of melatonin. There is research to suggest that infradian rhythms such as the menstrual cycle are also important regulators of behaviour. Penton-Volk et al. (1999) found that woman expressed a preference for feminised faces at the least fertile stage of their menstrual cycle, and for a more masculine face at their most fertile point. These findings indicate that women’s sexual behaviour is motivated by their infradian rhythms, highlighting the importance of studying infradian rhythms in relation to human behaviour -Practical applications in treatment --> Knowledge of infradian rhythm that influences SAD --> light box stimulates strong light in morning and evening. Relieve symptoms in up to 60% of individuals, But placebo effecr if 30% using sham-negative ion generator. HOWEVER, doubts of effects of influence on chemical phototherapy

Answer 95

-Controversy of evidence for influence of pheromones in the cycle --> much of the studies are derived from animal studies. For example, the role of sea urchins in releasing pheromones into the surroudings will eject their sex cells. But research into human behaviour remains speculative and inconclusive. Animal studies have different physiologies so cannot be generalised -methodological limitations -Menstrual synchronisation is not always present in all-female samples = For example, Trevathan et al (1993) noted that he had found no evidence of menstrual synchronisation in the all-female participants used, which suggests that there are external (extraneous) variables which may affect the timing and duration of their menstrual cycles. McClintock et al. did not control for such extraneous factors e.g. smoking, physical activity and alcohol consumption. Therefore, this raises doubts about the strength of the influence of pheromones, as an exogenous zeitgeber which can entrain infradian rhythms.

Answer 96

-supporting research into distinct stages of sleep cycle (valid and replicable) --> Dement and Kleitman -Many studies into the sleep cycle have been conducted in controlled lab settings = high internal validity = standardized procedure -An interesting case study indicates the flexibility of ultradian rhythms. Randy Gardener remained awake for 264 hours. While he experienced numerous problems such as blurred vision and disorganised speech, he coped rather well with the massive sleep loss. After this experience, Randy slept for just 15 hours and over several nights he recovered only 25% of his lost sleep. Interestingly, he recovered 70% of Stage 4 sleep, 50% of his REM sleep, and very little of the other stages. These results highlight the large degree of flexibility in terms of the different stages within the sleep cycle and the variable nature of this ultradian rhythm.

Answer 97

-Circadian rhythm --> biological rhythms that occur over a 24hr cycle

Answer 98

-Biological rhythm --> patterns of changes in body activity over cyclical periods

Answer 99

-Ultradian rhythm --> biological rhythms that occur more than one cycle in 24hrs

Answer 100

-Infradian rhythm --> Biological rhythms that are longer than 24hrs but shorter than 1 year

Answer 101

-Endogenous pacemakers --> internal body clocks that regulate our biological rhythms --> e.g sleep-wake cycle

Answer 102

-Exogenous zeitgebers --> external cues that influence our biological rhythms ---> e.g influence of light on sleep wake

Answer 103

-SCN (suprachiasmatic nucleus) -The SCN is a tiny bundle of nerves located in the hypothalamus in each hemisphere of the brain -It is one of the primary endogenous pacemakers in mammals and is influential in maintaining circadian rhythms such as the sleep-wake cycle -nerve fibres connected to the eye cross in an area called the optic chiasm on their way to the visual area of the cerebral cortex -SCN lies just above the optic chiasm and recieves information about light directly from this chiasm and continues even when our eyes are closed -This enables the biological clock to adjust to changing patterns of daylight even whilst we are asleep.

Answer 104

-De Coursey et al (2000) --> they destroyed SCN connections in the brain of 30 chipmuncks who were then returned to their natural habitat and observed for 80 days. The sleep-wake cycle of chipmunks disappeared and by the end a significant proportional of them had been killed by predators (presumably bc they were awake and vulnerable to attack when they should have been asleep -Ralph et al (1990) --> bred "mutant" hamsters with a 20hr sleep-wake cycle. When SCN cells from the foetal tissue of mutant hamsters were transplanted into the brains of normal hamsters cycles of 2nd group defaulted to 20 hrs. Importance of SCN in establishing sleep-wake cycle

Answer 105

Low levels of light --> optic nerve (melanopsin carries signals to SCN) --> axon pathway to pineal gland --> melatonin released --> induced sleep

Answer 106

-SCN passes information on day length and light that it recieves to the pineal gland. -Pineal gland is a pea-like structure in the brain just behind the hypothalamus. -During night the pineal gland increases the production of melatonin which induces sleep -melatonin has been suggested as a causal factor in SAD (seasonal affective disorder)

Answer 107

Exogenous zeitgebers are external factors in the environment that reset our biological clocks through a process known as entrainment. Without external cues the free running biologicsl clock controls the sleep-wake cycle, This was seen by Siffre. This shows that the sleep-wake cycle is determined by an interaction of endogenous (internal) and exogenous (external) factors

Answer 108

Light --> key zeitberger in humans. Can reset the body's main endogenous pacemaker (SCN) so plays a role in the maintenance of the sleep-wake cycle. Light can also have indirect influence on key processes in the body that control such functions as hormone secretion and blood circulation

Answer 109

Campbell and Murphy (1998) -> demonstrated that light may be detcted by skin receptor sites on the body even when the same information is not received by the eyes -15ppts were woken at various times and a light pad was shone on the back of their knees -deivation in ppts sleep-wake up to 3hrs -suggeste that light is a powerful exogenpus zeitgeber that need not necessarily rely on the eyes

Answer 110

-sleep-wake cycle = disrupted -night/lack of sleep = exogenous zeitgeber -production of melatonin = more tried = more tense and irritable -out of sync with external cues -endogeous pacemaker = SCN which regulates sleep-wake cycle

Answer 111

AO1 --> external cues, light, affect sleep-wake cycle, role of cortisol and melatonin, receptors in SCN are sensitive to levels of light, disrupt natural sleep pattern AO2 --> dark room at sunset and bright/noisy room during the day AO3 --> Limitations = exogenous zeitgebers are overstated. Strengths = research support (campbell and murphy) -> light is important in encouraging regular circadian rhythm

Answer 112

-As new parents know only too well, babies are rarely in the same sleep-wake cycle as the rest of the family. -in human infants the sleep/wake cycle is apparently random. Circadian rhythms begin around 6 weeks and by 16 weeks most babies are entrained. The schedules imposed by parents will be a key influence including mealtimes and bedtimes -Research suggests that adapting to local times for eating and sleeping (rather than depending on ones own feelings of hunger and fatigue) is an effective way of entraining circadian rhythms and beating jet lag

Answer 113

-Animal studies into the role of SCN --> SCN role in sleep-wake cycle can be demonstrated with animals through lesion studies and cellular implantation. DeCoursay destroyed SCN connections in 30 chipuminks etc. Ralph et al and mutant hamsters etc. Manipulation of SCN in controlled conditions so results can be replicated and cause-effect relationship can be proven. However, ethical issues and issues in generalising to humans who have more complex social cues/sleep-wake cycles -Practical research applications (light exposure to avoid jet lag) --> Jet lag can be a severe condition causing sleep, appetite and mood disturbance. By understanding role of exogenous zeitgebers we can decrease impacts of jetlag on sleep-wake cycle. Brugess found that exposure to bright light following east-west flight decreased the time needed to readjust to local time on arrival. 3 groups of volunteers were exposued to either bright light, intermittent bright light or dim light, Bright light = circadian rhythm shifted 2.1 hrs, 1.5 for intertmittent and 0.6 for dim light There is research support for the role of melanopsin. Skene and Arendt (2007) claimed that the majority of blind people who still have some light perception have normal circadian rhythms whereas those without any light perception show abnormal circadian rhythms. This demonstrates the importance of exogenous zeitgebers as a biological mechanism and their impact on biological circadian rhythms.

Answer 114

-Reductionism (role of peripheral oscillators) --> too simplistic to suggest that the SCN is the only endogenous pacemaker responsible for regulating sleep-wake cycle. Research demonstrated that there are many peripheral oscillators found in many other organs of the body e.g skin that function in combination with SCN and can work individually e.g Campbell and Murphy, suggesting that light does not need to enter the eyes to have effect on sleep-wake cycle. However, there are methodological limitations - doesn’t account for other exogenous zeitgbers -Role of exogenous zeitgebers may be overstated --> evidence that although external environmental cues may vary, some individuals pacemakers are set to withstand influence. Case study from Miles (1977) of young man blind from birth with a circadian rhythm of 24.9hrs whose sleep-wake cycle could not be adjusted regardless to changes of social cues. He required medication to allow him to sleep and wake up everyday. However, psychologists may argue that this is an exceptional circumstance and for most ppl there is an interacition between our internal pacemaker and exogenous zeitgebers. -issues with case study evidence to support role of endogenous pacemakers --> e.g Siffre. --> cannot generalise results to whole populations of people

Answer 115

Measures brain activity while task is being performed using MRI. Detect regions of the brain that are rich in oxygen and are active High spatial resolution (location of brain) => by the mm Low temporal resolution (5 second lag) Show localised brain activity

Answer 116

Measure electrical activity within the brain via electrodes that are fixed to an individuals scalp using a skull cap. Represents brainwave patterns generated by action of millions of neurons Low spatial resolution (no location) High temporal resolution (timing of neural activity) Brain activity indicates neurological abnormalites e.g epilepsy

Answer 117

Brains electrophysiological response to a specific sensory, cognitive or motor event. Can be isolated through statistical analysis of EEG data. Filter all extraneous brain activity not related to specific stimulus Poor spatial resolution Good temporal resolution Measure brainwave triggered by particular events using statistical averaging (test cognition)

Answer 118

Brain is analysed after death to determine whether certain observed behaviours during patients lifetime can be linked to abnormality in the brain. Compare with neurotypical brain High spatial resolution (deep anatomical understanding of brain abnormality) Low temporal resolution Assess rare disorder or neurological deficet (GID or schizophrenia)

Answer 119

EEG is a recording of general brain activity whereas ERP is a recording of brain activity to a specific stimulus presented to participants

Answer 120

non-invasive unlike a PET scan. FMRI doesn’t rely on the use of radiation as is virtually risk free -high spatial resolution -> clear picture of how brain activity is localised

Answer 121

Limitations of FMRI --> expensive compared to other neuroimaging techniques -not suitable for everyone -> person must lie extremely still -poor temporal resolution

Answer 122

valuable in the diagnosis of conditions such as epilepsy (practical applications) -contributed understanding to stages involved in sleep (ultradian rhythms) -high temporal resolution -> easy to detect even the smallest issues

Answer 123

not useful in pinpointing the exact source of neural activity and cannot distinguish between adjacent locations

Answer 124

more specific = increased validity (more exact measurement of neural processes) -excellent temporal resolution (widespread use in cognitive functions) -practical application -> p300 component is involved in the working memory

Answer 125

lack of standardization in ERP methodology in different research findings so is difficult to confirm -extraneous variables are not completely eliminated

Answer 126

vital in providing a foundation of early understanding of key processes in the brain e.g Broca's area -improves medical knowledge + generate hypothese for further study

Answer 127

causation is an issue -> observed damage may not be linked to the defect under review -ethical issues -> no consent -> Patient HM never provided his consent

Answer 128

stimulus -> sense organs in PNS -> sensory neuron --> CNS --> relay neuron --> motor neuron --> effector

Answer 129

Axon --> synaptic terminal --> neurotransmitter --> synapse --> receptor site --> post synaptic neuron -> electrical impulse

Answer 130

-studies lack ecological validity -> subject to specific levels of control = false conclusions being drawn - this study was carried out in a controlled lab setting, which meant that the differences in the sleep patterns could not be attributed to situational factors, but only to biological differences between participants. While this study provide convincing support for the role of innate biological factors and ultradian rhythms, psychologists should examine other situational factors that may also play a role. -Individual Differences: The problem with studying sleep cycles is the differences observed in people, which make investigating patterns difficult. Tucker et al. (2007) found significant differences between participants in terms of the duration of each stage, particularly stages 3 and 4 (just before REM sleep). This demonstrates that there may be innate individual differences in ultradian rhythms, which means that it is worth focusing on these differences during investigations into sleep cycles.

Answer 131

when a neuron is at rest the inside of the neuron is negative relative to the outside Different concentrations of ions on each membrane side When a neuron is activated by a stimulus the inside of the cell becomes positevly charged for a short time creating the electrical impulse

Answer 132

circadian = lasts once within 24hr period e.g sleep-wake cycle ultradian = repeated throughout 24hr cycle = sleep stages or appetite

Answer 133

pituitary gland hypothalamus

Answer 134

Individual Differences: The problem with studying sleep cycles is the differences observed in people, which make investigating patterns difficult. Tucker et al. (2007) found significant differences between participants in terms of the duration of each stage, particularly stages 3 and 4 (just before REM sleep). This demonstrates that there may be innate individual differences in ultradian rhythms, which means that it is worth focusing on these differences during investigations into sleep cycles Additionally, the way in which such research is conducted may tell us little about ultradian rhythms in humans. When investigating sleep patterns, participants must be subjected to a specific level of control and be attached to monitors that measure such rhythms. This may be invasive for the participant, leading them to sleep in a way that does not represent their ordinary sleep cycle. This makes investigating ultradian rhythms, such as the sleep cycle, extremely difficult as their lack of ecological validity could lead to false conclusions being drawn.

Answer 135

motor cortex -> motor neurons nerve impulses somatosensory --> sensory neurons auditory cortex --> nerve impulses from receptors in the ear (not contralateral) brocas --> produce language (left hemisphere only) wernickes --> understand language (left hemisphere only)

Answer 136

cannot control particiapnt variables

Answer 137

lack of sychronization increased anxiety reduced alterness

Answer 138

Bovin et al

Answer 139

Burgress et al

Answer 140

Treatments for jet lag e.g. melatonin, would be creditable as long as there is an explicit link to biological rhythms e.g. via the role of melatonin in biological clocks

Answer 141

implications of findings for our understanding of the mechanisms of the effects of disruption, and application of findings to reduce the impact of disruption e.g. by changes to shift work patterns

Answer 142

. There are many studies supporting a role for EPs in the control of biological rhythms, and how they interact with exogenous zeitgebers; these include Siffre’s original isolation study and subsequent similar work, experiments on infradian rhythms, and even research on non-human animals (eg hamsters) and plants could be made directly relevant to this question.

Answer 143

An effective route to discussion/evaluation marks would be methodological evaluation of research and field studies as relevant to the consequences. A second route would be commentary on the implications of findings eg what modifications to shift work have been shown to alleviate its effects? Does our knowledge of the mechanisms behind jet lag suggest possible ways of minimising its effects? Accurate explanations of why/how disrupting biological rhythms has such effects ie the roles of endogenous pacemakers and exogenous zeitgebers, would qualify as extended commentary. Examiners should be sensitive to depth / breadth trade-offs in answers that cover several consequences or examples of disruption. Further relevant discussion points might broader approaches eg biological, general issues related the research eg reductionism; ethical issues; applications of psychological research eg to the alteration of shift work patterns.

Answer 144

internal vs external body clocks vs cues

Answer 145

adrenaline = muscle tension sick = inhibit digestion shaky hands = increased blood flow

Answer 146

sensory neuron

Answer 147

* Neurons enable communication within the nervous system * the cell body (soma) contains the genetic material * branch-like dendrites extend from the cell body (often with dendritic spines) * dendrites carry functional information towards the cell body * dendrites can receive information from other neurons * axons carry messages away from the cell body * axons can be myelinated to increase speed of nerve transmission (saltatory conduction between nodes of Ranvier) * terminal boutons are at the end of axons, these make synaptic connections with other cells * axon terminals contain neurotransmitters.

Answer 148

Zapurpain mimics the effect of inhibitory neurotransmitters, stimulation of postsynaptic receptors by an inhibitory neurotransmitter result in inhibition (hyperpolarisation) of the postsynaptic membrane * when an inhibitory neurotransmitter binds to the post-synaptic receptors it makes the post-synaptic cell less likely to fire (IPSP) * Summation – if inhibitory inputs are higher than excitatory they can cancel out excitation and inhibit an action potential occurring/Zapurpain would decrease the overall activity * Zapurpain would make the post-synaptic cell less likely to fire * reducing brain activity may lead to reduced pain

Answer 149

* fMRIs and ERPs are both non-invasive and do not use radiation (risk free) * fMRIs and ERPs both measure brain activity linked to events/tasks.

Answer 150

fMRIs have poor temporal resolution whereas ERPs have good temporal resolution * fMRIs have good spatial resolution whereas ERPs have poor spatial resolution * fMRIs provide indirect measure of neural activity whereas ERPs offer a direct measure of neural activity * different methodology - fMRIs work by measuring changes in blood oxygenation as a measure of neural activity whereas ERPs measure electrical activity via electrodes to detect brainwaves triggered by certain events * fMRIs are more expensive than ERPs.

Answer 151

* the endocrine system helps to regulate the activity of cells and organs in the body * the endocrine system communicates chemical messages to the organs of the body

Answer 152

less fluency in speaking speech aphasia difficulties in formulating sentences

Answer 153

mobility issues paralysis on right side of body since left hemisphere controls right side

Answer 154

autonomic = involvuntary somatic = voluntary = conscious control

Answer 155

the synaptic vesicles containing the neurotransmitter are only present on/released from the presynaptic membrane  the receptors for the neurotransmitters are only present on the postsynaptic membrane  it is the binding of the neurotransmitter to the receptor which enables the signal/information to be passed/transmitted on (to the next neuron).  Diffusion of the neurotransmitters mean they can only go from high to low concentration, so can only travel from the presynaptic to the postsynaptic membrane.

Answer 156

hippocampus

Answer 157

cerebellum

Answer 158

lateralised to the left hemisphere

Answer 159

-when a picture of an object was shown to the right visual field they could easily describe but if it was presented to the left visual field it could not be described -left hand could select an object that was closely related to an image presented to the left visual field -right hemisphere appeared dominant in terms of recognising faces

Answer 160

Research by Broca did post-mortern examinations of patients who could understand language but not produce it – patients damaged their frontal lobe, The Broca’s area is named after Paul Broca, who discovered this region while treating a patient named Leborgne, who was more commonly referred to as ‘Tan’. Tan could understand spoken language but was unable to produce any coherent words, and could only say ‘Tan’., and Wenicke’s patients had damaged to temporal lobe so couldnt understand speech,

Answer 161

* When the brain is still maturing recovery from trauma is more likely. Josie is young. * Transfer of functions to undamaged areas (‘neural reorganisation’) which can explain her recovery. * Growth of new neurons and/or connections to compensate for damaged areas (‘neural regeneration’) which can explain her recovery. * Plasticity allows the brain to cope better with ‘indirect’ effects of brain damage eg swelling, haemorrhage following road accident.

Answer 162

Lotta’s grandmother will only be able to talk in short meaningful sentences which take great effort * speech lacks fluency/difficulty with certain words which help sentences function (e.g. ‘it’ and ‘the’)

Answer 163

Lotta’s grandmother might still be capable of functional reorganisation/plasticity * functional compensation by other undamaged areas * although she is older her brain might still be able to form new connections (axons and dendrites) between neurons * neuronal loss may be compensated for by regeneration (axon sprouting) * denervation supersensitivity to reduce the severity/extent of Lotta’s grandmother’s impairment * plasticity allows the brain to cope better with ‘indirect’ effects of brain damage resulting from inadequate blood supply following a stroke * references to increased brain stimulation of the opposite hemisphere, physiotherapy, etc to enhance Lotta’s grandmother’s recovery * reference to relevant studies on plasticity, eg suggesting women recover quicker than men would be an effective way to illustrate key points, if directly linked to Lotta’s grandmother’s recover

Answer 164

Indirectly measuring the electrical activity of neurons by recording changes in brain blood flow

Answer 165

EEG is a recording of general brain activity usually linked to states such as sleep and arousal, whilst ERPs are elicited by specific stimuli presented to the participant.

Answer 166

fMRI captures dynamic brain activity as opposed to MRI/post-mortem examinations which purely show physiology * interpretation of fMRI is complex and is affected by temporal resolution, biased interpretation and by the baseline task used * fMRI research is expensive leading to reduced sample sizes which negatively impact the validity of the research * EEGs and ERPs are cheaper so can be more widely used in research * EEGs and ERPs have poor spatial resolution * post-mortem examinations may lack validity due to small sample sizes (as special permission needs to be granted) and also due to neuronal changes during and after death * advantages of investigating brain activity in humans rather than generalising from animal lesion/single electrode recording studies (for validity and ethical reasons) * comparisons between techniques is an effective source of evaluation marks * research studies are creditworthy as long as they are effectively used to evaluate the technique(s) described.

Answer 167

The excitatory and inhibitory influences are summed, if the net effect on the post synaptic neuron is inhibitory, the neuron will be less likely to 'fire' and if the net effect is excitatory, the neuron will be more likely to fire.

Answer 168

* fMRIs have poor temporal resolution whereas ERPs have good temporal resolution * fMRIs have good spatial resolution whereas ERPs have poor spatial resolution * fMRIs provide indirect measure of neural activity whereas ERPs offer a direct measure of neural activity * different methodology - fMRIs work by measuring changes in blood oxygenation as a measure of neural activity whereas ERPs measure electrical activity via electrodes to detect brainwaves triggered by certain events * fMRIs are more expensive than ERPs.

Answer 169

SCN also recieves information about light levels from the optic nerve which sets out circadian rhythms and allows synchronisation with the outside world responsible for sleep arousal = pineal gland

Answer 170

the date he ended the study to be a month earlier then it actually was lack of natural exogenous zietigebers =disrupts natural biological rhythms

Answer 171

PMS is not a psychological but a physiological condition = issue of determinism

Answer 172

-research support = Dement and Klieman but sample suffers from gender bias -standardised equipment used in EEG research -allows the development of treatments

Answer 173

1-2 = NREM, light sleep, heart rate decreases, alpha and theata waves 3-4 = slow metabolism, repair, detla waves 5= REM, body paralysis, dreams, fast EEG

Answer 174

-Broca's area was studied usng patient tan -tan was found to have a large lesion in broca's area -however patient tan couldnt provide informed consent bc of his lack of coherency in speech = brings forth ethical issues

Answer 175

Strength = supports evolutionary behaviours Limitations = gender bias in research of fight or flight (androcentric) particularly in animal research Taylor = women are more likely to engage and befriend rather than flight/fight Gray = found there are more than 2 types of fight or flight humans engage with e.g freeze = flight or fight response doesnt consider evolutionary shifts = oversimplified complex

Answer 176

autonomic = glands and organs somatic = skeletal muscle and movement

Answer 177

both = involved with involuntary processes + simple functions however the brain can regulate higher cognitive function more complex than simple reflex responses

Answer 178

observed in people that make investigating patterns difficult. Tucker et al. found significant differences between participants in terms of the duration of each stage, particularly stages 3 and 4 (just before REM sleep). This study was carried out in a controlled lab setting, which meant the differences in the sleep patterns could not be attributed to situational factors, but only to biological differences between participants. This means that a range of factors contribute to ultr

Answer 179

behaviour as well as biological processes. Penton-Volk et al. found that woman expressed a preference for feminised faces at the least fertile stage of their menstrual cycle, and for a more masculine face at their most fertile point. These findings indicate that women’s sexual behaviour is motivated by their infradian rhythms, highlighting the importance of studying them before drawing conclusions about ostensibly social behaviours. However, it is claimed that exogenous cues can control the cycles that are normally governed by endogenous factors. Russell et al. found that female menstrual cycles became synchronised with other females through odour exposure. This suggests that the synchronisation of menstrual cycles can be affected by pheromones, which have an effect on people nearby rather than on the person producing them. These findings indicate that external factors must be taken into consideration when investigating infradian rhythms and that perhaps a more holistic approach should be taken as opposed to a reductionist approach that considers only endogenous influences would be preferable.

Answer 180

inhibitory = serotonin exicatory = adrenaline

Answer 181

voluntary movement on the opposite side of the body - located in the back of the frontal lobe

Answer 182

Eric Shinder et al

Answer 183

40 hours golf training produced changes in the neural movement of ppts aged 40-60 this was compared to FMRI of a control group

Answer 184

cortical reorganisation in the somatosensory cortex

Answer 185

if two words were presented simultaneosuly to each visual field the individual would both select and say the thing superiorty of right hemisphere in drawing tasks

Answer 186

controls physiological functions such as heart rate and breathing

Answer 187

coordinating muscle movements and balance

Biopsychology Flashcards

(213 cards)