Research methods Flashcards

Question

what are quasi experiments

Answer 1

a study that is almost an experiment but lacks key ingredients, the IV has not been determined by anyone and the variables simply exist e.g being older or younger. E.g adoption rates

Answer 2

Strengths of Lab experiments --> controlled environment; we can easily see changes and what caused it. Replicable and extraneous variables are removed Limitations of Lab experiments --> lacks ecological validity; the ability to repeat the experiment in a real world setting cannot apply to everyday life

Answer 3

Strengths of field experiments --> more realistic to daily life --> done in an environment that is more natural which means that results produced may be more valid and authentic especially if participants are unaware of the experiment Limitations of field experiments --> loss of control over extraneous variables and lacks ethics due to concerns around consent/privacy

Answer 4

Strengths of the natural experiment --> provides opportunities for research; high external validity because they involve the sway of real life issues and problems as they happen Limitations of natural experiment --> participants may not be randomly allocated to experimental decisions which means researcher may be less sure whether the IV affected the DV

Answer 5

Strengths of the quasi experiment --> controlled conditions which share strengths of lab experiments Limitations of quasi experiment --> cannot randomly allocate ppts to conditons and therefore may be confounding variables

Answer 6

independent groups repeated measures design matched pair designs

Answer 7

different participants are used in each condition of the IV. This means that each condition of the experiment includes a different group of participants which should be done by random allocation. 2 groups

Answer 8

the same participants take place in each condition of the IV

Answer 9

pairs of participants are matched depending on variables. One of the pair goes to control group and the other goes to the experimental group

Answer 10

Advantages --> avoids order effects e.g fatigue as people participate in one condition only Disadvantages --> differences between participants may affect results e.g variations in age Random allocation deals with limitations (participant variables) through computer generator and anonymised name draws

Answer 11

Advantages --> participant varibales are reduced and controlled, easier to conduct due to fewer participants needed Disadvantages --> order effects arise due to repeating 2 tasks, Acts as a confounding variable and performance varies Counterbalancing --> half participants take part in condition A then B and reverse for other half (B then A)

Answer 12

Advantage --> order effects and demand characteristics are less of a problem due to one conditioned group per participant Disadvantages --> hard to reduce participant variables and matching can be time consuming/expensive, impossible to match people exactly Random allocation --> randomly assigned to conditions

Answer 13

variables that are not the IV but could affect the DV if not controlled e.g time of day, noise distraction etc

Answer 14

demand characteristics investigator effects situational variables participant variables

Answer 15

changing your behaviour to how participants think the experimenter wants them to react

Answer 16

deception (lying about true aims of the study), single blind design or double blind design

Answer 17

any clues from the researcher that encourage certain behaviours in the participant) e.g indirect investigator effects – the measurement of the variables may be carried out in a way which makes the desired outcome more likely

Answer 18

a double blind design, interrater reliability (researcher checks results) and standardized instructions (pre written script)

Answer 19

features of research situation that may affect participants behaviour for example order effects

Answer 20

standardized procedures and standardized instructions and counterbalance which eliminates order effects

Answer 21

independent groups matched pairs design

Answer 22

random allocation can be done/randomisation of biases

Answer 23

confounding variables may occur that damages the internal validity of an experiment

Answer 24

a group of people who are the focus of the researchers interest from which a sample is drawn

Answer 25

a group of people who take part in a research investigation, The sample is drawn from a target population and is presumed to be representative of that population

Answer 26

the method used to collect a sample

Answer 27

when certain groups may be over of under represented within the sample selected (limits generalisation)

Answer 28

the extent to which findings and conclusions from a particular investigation can be broadly applied to the population. This is more possible if the sample of participants is representative of the population

Answer 29

-random sampling -stratified sampling -systematic sampling -volunteer sample -opportunity sample

Answer 30

all members of the target population have an equal chance of being selected e.g names randomly picked from a list

Answer 31

chosen for selecting from a target group. Differs to random sampling as it does not give an equal chance of selection to each individual in the target group e.g every 4th person in a list is used

Answer 32

composition of the sample reflects the proportions of people in certain groups within the population select participants in groups from a specific target population

Answer 33

the researchers simply decide to select any participants who happen to be willing and available e.g someone passing by on a street

Answer 34

the participants choose to be part of the sample

Answer 35

Advantages --> free from researcher bias Disadvantages --> difficult and time consuming to conduct as obtaining a list of the target population may be difficult and participants may not want to take part

Answer 36

Advantages --> assuming the list order has been randomised, this method offers an unbiased chance of gaining a representative sample Disadvantages --> if the list has been assembled in any other way bias may be present

Answer 37

Advantages --> avoids researcher bias and produces a representative sample so generalisation is possible Disadvantages --> stratification is not perfect, separate conditions must be met properly

Answer 38

Strengths --> it is convenient – this method saves the researcher time and is less costly Limitations --> researcher bias as has complete control over participants and the sample is unrepresentative of the target population as it is drawn from a specific areaw

Answer 39

Advantages --> it is easy to collect the sample and requires minimal input from the researcher Disadvantages --> volunterr bias

Answer 40

arise when a conflict exits between the rights of participants in research studies and the goals of research to produce authentic, valid and worthwhile data

Answer 41

-confidentiality/privacy -deception -informed consent -debrief -right to withdraw -protection from harm

Answer 42

Anonymity means data is not identifiable by their name. Confidentiality refers to how the data is stored and who sees it. Privacy is about not listening to what a person is saying or looking at what they are doing. Privacy is a particular issue in observational studies

Answer 43

participants must be told more or less what they are doing so that they are not completely deceived. This could make them feel bad after the experiment

Answer 44

participants may only participate if they have consented to take part before the study knowing all the information involved

Answer 45

participants must be told that they have the right to remove themselves or any of their data from the study. They also have the opportunity to talk to the experiments to know the true names of the study after the experiment

Answer 46

The participants are told that they can remove themselves from the study at any time. They are told how to withdraw and how to not be harmed when withdrawing

Answer 47

participants must be managed so they can exit the study unharmed --> counselling sessions can be provided by the researcher if necessary

Answer 48

costs and benefits

Answer 49

BPS (british psychological society)

Answer 50

-presumptive consent --> similar group of people are asked if the study is acceptable -prior general consent --> participants give their permission to take part in a number of different studies involving on of deception -retrospective consent --> participants are asked for their consent after the study

Answer 51

-anonymity -reminding participants that their data will be protected

Answer 52

Participants behaviour is watched and recorded with their knowledge and informed consent

Answer 53

Strengths: more ethically acceptable Limitations: participants may change their behaviour If they know they are being watched

Answer 54

participants behaviour is watched and recorded without their consent and knowledge

Answer 55

Strengths: removes the problem of participant reactivity so increased validity Limitations: ethics of privacy are questioned

Answer 56

researcher becomes a member of the group whose behaviour they are recording and watching

Answer 57

Strengths: increased insight and increased validity of finding Limitations: going native (loosing objectivity of the experiment)

Answer 58

the researcher remains outside of the group whose behaviour they are watching

Answer 59

Strengths: Less danger of going native as a physical distance is kept Limitations: loose valuable insight (too far removed)

Answer 60

provides qualitative data - no structure and records all behaviour in a descriptive way

Answer 61

researcher has various systems to organise the recordings of observations e.g behaviour categories or time scanning

Answer 62

Strengths: more efficient, easier to interpret, put in graphs and make comparisons Limitations: reduced to few characteristics

Answer 63

behavioural categories and sampling procedures

Answer 64

Operationalise --> breaking the behaviour into a set of components Be objective --> no inferences to be made about the behaviour. Simply just recording Be mutually exclusive --> no overlapping, you should not have to mark 2 categories at the same time

Answer 65

Event sampling --> recording the number of times something happens Time sampling --> recording behaviours in a given time frame e.g what someone is doing every 30 minutes

Answer 66

Strengths --> faster to produce and easier to analyse Limitations --> too many observations happen at once so may be difficult to record. If the event is complex, specific details may be missed

Answer 67

Strengths --> reduces the number of observations to be made. Fixates on set periods of time so is more focused and reduces chances of fatigue Limitations --> some behaviours will be missed and therefore observation may not be representative

Answer 68

nominal ordinal interval

Answer 69

(data in separate categories) e.g attachment types – used for graphs etc

Answer 70

(Data placed in a specific order or scale) e.g organizing people from least to most aggressive – highly subjective and used for calculating range

Answer 71

(Data measured using units of equal interval) e.g number of correct answers --> used for standard deviation

Answer 72

mean median mode

Answer 73

average number – calculate by adding all data items and divide by number of data items. Used for interval data Strengths --> most sensitive measure as utilises all values Limitations --> can be distorted by extreme values so unrepresentative

Answer 74

middle value in data set – all items are arranged in order and middle number is left – used in interval and ordinal data Strengths --> not affected by extremes Limitations --> not sensitive as exact values are not reflected

Answer 75

Mode --> most common value – used in all three (nominal, ordinal and interval) Strengths --> unaffected by extreme values Limitations --> not always useful (more than one common choice)

Answer 76

range standard deviations

Answer 77

difference in set of data - highest value – smallest value. Useful for data which is finding the same mean but has different ranges. Strengths ---> easy to calculate Limitations --> affected by extreme values which might skew data

Answer 78

Standard deviation --> provides information about the distribution of scores around the mean e.g how spread out the scores are from the mean – used to measure the average distance between each data item Strengths --> precise measure as it takes all exact values Limitations --> may hide some of the characteristics of data set --> the smaller the standard deviation the more narrow the range and the larger the population the more normal distribution.

Answer 79

bell curve shape mean,median and mode are all in the middle

Answer 80

-majority of participants score high so tail on self is longer than right. mode is more than mean/median

Answer 81

-majority of participants score low so tail on right side is longer. Mode is less then mean/median

Answer 82

bar charts histograms scatter graphs

Answer 83

height of each bar represents the frequency. The categories are x axis and the frequency is the y axis. Bar charts are non continuous data e.g nominal data and a space is left between each bar to indicate this.

Answer 84

The x axis must be continual so no categories and there should be no gaps between bars. Used for interval and ordinal data

Answer 85

used for correlation analysis. Provides initial indication if there is a relationship between two variables

Answer 86

variables investigated within a correlation e.g height. plotted by a scatter graph

Answer 87

value that states the strength of the correlation

Answer 88

if one thing increases so does the other

Answer 89

if one thing increases, the other either increases or decreases

Answer 90

Directional ---> There will be a relationship between...As...increases...this increases showing a positive correlation Non-directional --> There will be a relationship between...As...increases...this either increases or decreases.

Answer 91

Strengths of correlations --> can be used as starting points to assess patterns between co-variables before committing to an experimental study, quick to carry out, secondary data can be used Limitations of correlations --> difficult to establish cause and effect relationship. Correlations can be misinterpretated.

Answer 92

1) scientists conduct research 2) scientists write their results 3) journal editor receives an article and sends it out for peer review 4) peer reviewers read the article and provide feedback to the editor 5) editor may send reviewer comments to scientists who may revise their article and sends it back. If does not meet standards it will be rejected 6) if an article meets the peer standards it is published in a journal

Answer 93

other psychologists who are experts in the same field of research check work for validity

Answer 94

-influence of extraneous variables -whether the data collected is appropriate and accurately recorded -whether the research method was suitable for the aims of the study -interpretation of finding/valid claims

Answer 95

example of a psychologist who has been discredited for tampering with the numbers in his research - controversial as he helped created the 11+ exams for schools

Answer 96

academic writing that has been published

Answer 97

-to know which research is worthwhile and hence funding can be allocated to it -to validate the relevance and quality of research (prevent fraudulent) -to suggest possible improvements or amendments

Answer 98

- anonymity is a problem – affects objectivity of viewers -publication bias involved in peer review – negative reports not published -It can be difficult to find an expert -Any research that opposes mainstream theories tends to be suppressed – rate of change is slowed down -Fraudulent research can be long lasting

Answer 99

refers to how well a test or a piece of research measures what it says it measures

Answer 100

There will be no difference in the number of words spoken in one minute by participants who drink energy drinks and water. Any difference will be due to chance.

Answer 101

whether a difference or an association is statistically significant – more than could happen by chance. This is then used to decide whether we should accept or reject the null hypothesis

Answer 102

--> Difference or correlation ---> Experimental design --> independent groups (unrelated), repeated measures (related), matched pairs (related) - not relevant to correlations ---> Levels of measurement --> ordinal (unsafe data as lacks precision and is a subjective scale), nominal (discrete data as each item can only appear in one category), interval (most precise and necessary for parametric tests)

Answer 103

parametric tests are much more robust than other tests, they are able to detect significance within data sets that non-parametric tests cannot.

Answer 104

related t-test unrelated t-test Pearson's R

Answer 105

1) data must be interval 2) Data should have been drawn from a population thus showing a normal distribution 3) should be homogeneity of variance (scores in each condition should have similar dispersion which can be determined by standard deviations in each condition – related design)

Answer 106

mode and no measure of dispersion

Answer 107

median and range

Answer 108

mean and standard deviation

Answer 109

-test of difference/association -related or unrelated design if is a test of difference -level of measurement

Answer 110

related t-test

Answer 111

chi-squared

Answer 112

Mann-whitney

Answer 113

unrelated t-test

Answer 114

chi-squared

Answer 115

spearman's rho

Answer 116

pearson's r

Answer 117

0.05 or 5% p ≤ 0.05

Answer 118

the probability of the observed/measured effect happening by chance is equal to or less than 5%. This means that in research where they claim to have found a significant difference/correlation there is still a 5% chance it was a fluke. Psychologists can never be 100% certain of their results as they have not tested everyone in the world in every conditions

Answer 119

1) one or two tailed test --> one tailed is a directional hypothesis and two tailed is a non-directional hypothesis 2) number of participants (usually appears as the N value on the table or DF) 3) Level significance --> known as the P value. p<0.05 is the standard level

Answer 120

some statistical tests require the calculated value to be equal to or more than the critical value

Answer 121

-chi-squared -spearman's rho -related t-test -unrelated t-test -pearson's r

Answer 122

-sign test -wilcoxon -mann whitney

Answer 123

-sign test -wilcoxon -mann whitney -chi-squared -spearman's rho -related t-test -unrelated t-test -pearson's R

Answer 124

null hypothesis is rejected and the alternative hypothesis is accepted when in reality the null hypothesis is true. This is an optimistic error or a false positive. When retesting should use 1%

Answer 125

The null hypothesis is accepted when it should have been rejected. This is a pessimistic error or a negative error. 10% should be used when retesting

Answer 126

1) state the hypothesis (null or alternate) 2) If alternate hypothesis check if it is one or two tailed 3) work our values which increased, decreased or stayed the same 4) calculate total participants by subtracting the amount of people who stayed the same 5) Calculate the observed value (lower value of what either increased or decreased) 6) Find the critical value of S from the table provided (level significance will be 0.05

Answer 127

observed value should be less than or equal to the critical value

Answer 128

- the method of measurement doesn’t measure what it claims to measure. - there are extraneous or confounding variables that affect the measurement.

Answer 129

a scientific approach based on gathering evidence through observation and experience.

Answer 130

-empirical -objective -replicable -falsifiable -theory construction and deduction -paradigm and paradigm shift -inductive and deductive

Answer 131

observation without bias

Answer 132

Being able to repeat a study to check the validity of the results across other contexts/circumstances

Answer 133

scientific statements are capable of being proven wrong. Popper argues that this is a key criteron for a scientific discipline, he proposed the theory of falsification. Successful theories have been constantly falsified and not proven false yet. Sciences that cannot be proven are called pseudo-sciences e.g Freud's oedipus complex. Theories which survive more falsify attempts are the strongest.

Answer 134

A set of shared assumptions and agreed methods in a scientific discipline. Kuhn suggests that paradigm's are what separates scientific disciplines from non-scientific disciplines. He also believes that a paradigm shift shows progress in science. Psychology that has too many conflicting ideas is referred to as pre-science

Answer 135

revolutionary changes in scientific assumption

Answer 136

use evidence from observation to formulate theories

Answer 137

conclusions are taken from inference, these are tested leading to theory adjustment

Answer 138

a theory refers to a set of general principles and laws which can be used to explain specific events and behaviours. Theory construction takes place through gathering evidence from direct observation during investigations. Deduction refers to the process of deriving new hypothesis from an already existing theory

Answer 139

Cognitive approach --> uses empirical methods in highly controlled lab conditions Biological approach --> Objective scientific data used to support theories with high levels of control -Eye witness testimony (Pardigm shift) -scientific methods are in many research studies giving them scientific credibility -findings positvely impact individuals

Answer 140

-nature vs nurture -systematic desensitization and medicine (treat phobais) -client centered therapies and antidepressants (treat depression)

Answer 141

Psychodynamic approach --> not objective -Humanistic approach --> not replicable -experiment interpretations can be subjective -not all research is generalisable e.g case studies

Answer 142

The result of the...(test) is significant/not significant. The calculated value is greater/less than the critical level value by...where n=....for a one/two tailed hypothesis with a p<0.05. The null hypothesis can be rejected/accepted and the alternate hypothesis is rejected/accepted.

Answer 143

1) more representative = generalisation 2) reduces researcher bias

Answer 144

data collected first hand by the researcher for the purpose of their aims

Answer 145

1) most representative 2) most sensitive

Answer 146

-reduces effect of order effects -A-B B-A (intermintent turns) -However does not eliminate order effects as 2 separate tasks are complete by each person

Answer 147

1)write research question 2)write operationalised one tailed hypothesis 3)describe method and procedure --> method/design, IV, DV, sampling method, material used, ethics, timings, controls, how data is obtained 4)state how you will analyse data 5)describe advantage of experimental design 6)outline one way you would take ethical issues into account 7)discuss ecological validity 8)evaluate sampling method 9)identify one disadvantage and how this will be overcome

Answer 148

how consistent the results are

Answer 149

the extent to which a research method measures what it is designed to measure

Answer 150

external internal population ecological temporal

Answer 151

related more to factors outside of the investigation such as generalising to other settings, other populations and other areas

Answer 152

refers to whether the effects observed in an experiment are due to the manipulation of the IV and not some other factor

Answer 153

ability to reasonably generalise findings from a sample to a larger population

Answer 154

the extent to which findings can be generalised to other settings (real world)

Answer 155

The extent to which findings hold true over time (not outdated) --> Freud's penis envy doesnt have temporal validity

Answer 156

-Face validity --> whether a test, scale or measure appears to measure what its supposed to measure. This can be done through eyeballing the measuring instrument or passing it onto an expert -Concurrent validity --> results obtained are very close to another recognized and well established test. Close agreement between two sets of data would indicate that the test has high concurrent validity

Answer 157

demand characteristics investigator effects individual differences

Answer 158

-Demand characteristics and investigator effects can be controlled using a single or double blind technique. -Individual differences can be controlled through experimental design. Using either a repeated measures or matched pairs design reduces the likelihood of individual differences affecting the results, as the same participants take part in each condition. However, if a repeated measures design is used; other factors such as fatigue can affect internal validity -Designing a pilot study is often one of the best ways to check that everything in your actual experiment will run smoothly which will improve the validity of results. It helps the researcher to identify any practical problems with the research method, design and so on. Pilot studies can also check items on a questionnaire to make sure they are easy to answer and unambigious -to improve external validity research should be replicated

Answer 159

-Test-retest --> involves administering the same test or questionnaire to the same person on different occasions. To be reliable the results obtained should be the same or similar. The set of scores obtained would be correlated -Inter-observer reliability --> relevant to observation research as researchers interpretation of events may be subjective or biased. There should be 2 observers to check the observers are applying behavioral categories in the same way

Answer 160

-Experimental research --> using a control group, standardise procedures to minimise participant reactivity and investigator effects, The use of single or double blind procedures -Questionnaires --> incorporate a lie scale to control social desirability bias and use anonymous data -Observations --> covert observation + behavioural categories -Qualitative methods --> triangulation and case studies/interviews

Answer 161

Each paragraph must have the subheading of each bullet point provided Only answer what is asked in the questions KEY TERMS!!! be specific in details and comprehensive

Answer 162

measures of central tendency and measures of dispersion

Answer 163

lacks ecological validity

Answer 164

Which experimental design is used.....why it is appropriate....context of the study

Answer 165

-tells us whether the hypothesis should be accepted (alternate) or rejected (null) -tells us if it is statistically significant

Answer 166

Title e.g same task for participants standardisation is very important.....in this study.....to control this....it would also be necessary

Answer 167

9 marker --> 4 points per paragraph 12 marker --> 3 points per paragraph

Answer 168

individual differences e.g someone might be older or better at the task than others thus reducing validity

Answer 169

3 paragaphs 1 AO1 2 AO3

Answer 170

-for 4 bullet points do 3 points per paragraph -You can draw diagrams for RM questions

Answer 171

-Questionnaires --> assess a persons thoughts or experiences through a number of different written questions -Interviews --> involves a live encounter where a set of questions is asked by an interviewer to an interviewee to assess their thoughts or experiences

Answer 172

-open question (questions are phrased in a way that the participant is free to answer however they like – qualitative data) --> rich and useful for sensitive topics but is difficult to convert to statistical data and is harder to analyse -closed question (questions which restrict you to a fixed number of responses – quantitative data e.g rating scales) ---> easy to analyse data and compare but lacks depth and detail

Answer 173

-cost-effective -gathers large amounts of data quickly -researcher does not need to be present -easier to analyse -responses can be anonymous

Answer 174

-difficult to know target population -takes a long time to design -difficulty to assess validity due to biases -participant bias is present e.g age -response bias

Answer 175

-structured (involves a set of predetermined questions asked during the interview – waits for a suitable response) --> easily replicable, comparisons can easily be made but interview bias is present and social desirability bias -unstructured (no pre-determined questions and instead it develops as the interview continues – more free flowing) --> lots of detailed data is collected and can be tailored to individuals due to greater insight but skilled interviewers are needed, interview bias, difficult to make comparisons, hard to analyse

Answer 176

A meta-analysis is where researchers combine the findings from multiple studies to draw an overall conclusion.

Answer 177

smaller SD -> smaller range around the mean

Answer 178

The 5% level is used as it strikes a balance between the risk of making the Type I and II errors

Answer 179

Process * other psychologists check the research report before deciding whether it could be published * independent scrutiny by other psychologists working in a similar field * work is considered in terms of its validity, significance and originality * assessment of the appropriateness of the methods and designs used * reviewer can accept the manuscript as it is, accept with revisions, suggest the author makes revisions and re-submits or reject without the possibility of re-submission * editor makes the final decision whether to accept or reject the research report based on the reviewers’ comments/recommendations * research proposals are submitted to panel and assessed for merit. Purposes * to ensure quality and relevance of research, eg methodology, data analysis etc * to ensure accuracy of findings * to evaluate propose

Answer 180

standardized

Answer 181

instead of mean if there is an anomolous result as it would skew/distotrt the data

Answer 182

-standardized procedure -less extraneous variables -easy to distinguish cause and effect relationship

Answer 183

there will be a difference between....

Answer 184

-measure of scores around the mean -smaller SD = more narrow the range between the lowest and highest score -large population = normal distribution

Answer 185

mean is lower than median and mode

Answer 186

calculated value is less than or equal to critical value

Answer 187

reference normal distribution, positive skew and negative skew

Answer 188

scatter = correlation analysis (+/-), 2 co-variables, ordinal data bar = nominal, discrete (non-continious), categorical histogram = scale, interval, continious

Answer 189

probability of observing results if the null hypothesis is correct higher t value = lower probability so null hypothesis is less likely to be correct

Answer 190

-difference between the means (bigger difference between 2 means = larger t value) = less likely null is correct -dispersion of data (larger dispersion = smaller t value) = more likely null is correct -sample size (larger sample size = larger t value)

Answer 191

abstract, introduction, method, results, discussion, references

Answer 192

-start of the report -short summary -briefly describes aspects of a study

Answer 193

-explains aims and hypothesis of the study -explains what past research has found

Answer 194

-how variables were measured -type of study -exact procedure used in enough detail so the study can be replicated

Answer 195

-description of results obtained -presentation of data -description of how the data was analysed

Answer 196

-statement of whether results supported hypotheis -interpretation of results -whether results have been replicated from other studies

Answer 197

-labels for data in thematic analysis are called codes -then these codes are categorised into themes -qualitative data -data must be written up

Answer 198

-category and tally table

Answer 199

-thematic = written data whilst content is any type of data thematic = codes then themes but in content is it called coding units then counting this thematic = report wiht interpretation of findings whilst content anlysis leaves a count

Answer 200

strength --> uses statistics to test hypothesis and can draw clearer conclusions e.g find mode then do chi suqared test whilst thematic analysis doesnt involve statistical tests thematic = subjective partcipants experiences

Answer 201

-Content analysis is a method used to analyse qualitative data (non-numerical data). In its most common form it is a technique that allows a researcher to take qualitative data and to transform it into quantitative data (numerical data). The technique can be used for data in many different formats, for example interview transcripts, film, and audio recordings. The researcher conducting a content analysis will use ‘coding units’ in their work. These units vary widely depending on the data used, but an example would be the number of positive or negative words used by a mother to describe her child’s behaviour or the number of swear words in a film

Answer 202

Strengths of content analysis It is a reliable way to analyse qualitative data as the coding units are not open to interpretation and so are applied in the same way over time and with different researchers It is an easy technique to use and is not too time consuming It allows a statistical analysis to be conducted if required as there is usually quantitative data as a result of the procedure Weaknesses of content analysis Causality cannot be established as it merely describes the data As it only describes the data it cannot extract any deeper meaning or explanation for the data patterns arising.

Answer 203

in-depth study of a person or group of people. idiographic and individualistic

Answer 204

use the recordings to make a transcription of the interview * use coding to initially analyse the transcripts * review the transcriptions/codes looking for emergent themes/ideas that might be linked to later aggressive behaviour, eg family violence, parental argument, alcohol misuse.

Answer 205

organising data according to themes or categories

Answer 206

as one co-variable increases the other co-variable increases

Answer 207

There will be a relationship between....

Answer 208

reduce extraneous variables

Answer 209

the two observers’ tally charts would be compared to check for agreement/calculate the correlation between the recordings of the two observers to determine the level of inter-observer reliability * researchers generally accept +0.8 correlation as a reasonable degree of reliability.

Answer 210

* first section of a report (accept alternative wording) * brief/summary/100-300 words (accept alternative wording) * contains (a summary of) the aims, methods, results, and conclusions (accept alternative wording)

Answer 211

events that occur in real world

Answer 212

generalise to people, stimuli etc

Answer 213

* objectivity and the empirical method * replicability and falsifiability * theory construction and hypothesis testing * paradigms and paradigm shifts.

Answer 214

there is only a 1% possibility that the difference in stress ratings between the two conditions is due to chance (not due to the breaktime 2km run) * there is ≤ 0.01 chance that the observed difference in the stress ratings reported is not a real difference (resulting from doing or not doing the 2km run at breaktime).

Answer 215

-x and y axis -title -key

Answer 216

The data from the interview may have improved the data as it meant they had different kinds of data to compare to each other, they collected both qualitative and quantitative data therefore having a range to compare. Also the essays may be biased as the teenagers were writing them themselves and could pick and choose what they wanted to say whereas in the interview they were more on the spot and were asked specific questions that they had to answer.

Answer 217

use a different sampling technique to avoid a self-selected sample and thus avoid volunteer bias as that may make them more susceptible to demand characteristics. change to independent groups design

Answer 218

This means that the difference in the number of nightmares reported after watching horror films compared to romantic comedies is significant at 0.05 level. This means there is less than 5% (1 in 20) likelihood (probability) that the difference was due to chance/due to something other than the IV.

Answer 219

order effects are likely to occur if you saw the horror films in the first week you may still be thinking about them/have higher levels of fear in the second week, resulting in more nightmares.

Answer 220

Format and style of consent form: will require the participant's agreement could be written as a form that participants need to sign could include space for the participant to sign the consent form could include a space for the participant to write the date could include a space for the participant to print their name. Outline of what the experiment entails: an explanation of the general purpose of the research they would need to watch an assigned horror film every night before going to bed for 7 nights and would need to watch an assigned romantic comedy every night before going to bed for 7 nights a daily requirement to truthfully respond to a text message asking whether they had experienced a nightmare the two-week duration of the experiment

Answer 221

Concurrent validity would involve correlating the results on the maths test with results for the same group of people on an established maths reasoning test. A Spearman's rho should be used for the two sets of test results and if the mathematical ability test is valid then there should be a significant positive correlation between the two sets of test scores at the 0.05 level.

Answer 222

data which takes on number values for which we can tell how much bigger one value is from another values cant go below zero

Answer 223

quantiative data e.g number of ppl with green eyes in a list

Answer 224

1st column = category 2nd column = frequency column

Answer 225

discrete = quantiative reduced to just certain numbers e.g nominal Continuous data is quantitative data that’s not restricted to certain numbers. e.g interval

Answer 226

y axis = frequency

Answer 227

more reliable than unstructured interviews but unstructured interviews enable researchers to gain more information

Answer 228

lack objecticity due to personal bias/social desirability bias

Answer 229

an in depth investigation and description and analysis of an individual group, institution and event production of qualitative data = analysis of unusual individuals or events tend to take place over a long period of time (longitudinal)

Answer 230

a research techhnique that enables the indirect study of behaviour by examining communications that other people produce type of observational research

Answer 231

stage of content analysis in which communication is studied by anlysing categories initial stage of content analysis quantitative data categorise information into meaningful units

Answer 232

inductive and qualitative approach to analysis that involves identifiying implict or explicit ideas within the data. Mostly after coding has done

Answer 233

strengths = rich, detailed insight generate hypothesis e.g patient HM limitations = inability to generalise and subjective interpretation = lack validity as it is prone to innaccuracy

Answer 234

strengths = no ethical issues / high external validity = flexible data limitations = indirect study = loss of information. Lack objectivity from the researcher

Answer 235

the extent to which a psychological measure relates to an existing similar measure

Answer 236

questionnaire, IQ tests, interviews

Answer 237

pilot studies behavioural categories can apply to other forms of observation such as content analysis or interviews

Answer 238

closed questions correlation 0.80 + or minus no leading questions in interviews through structured interviews lab experiments behavioural categories

Answer 239

effects observed in an experiment are due to the manipulation of the independent variable

Answer 240

relates to more factors outside the investigation, generalising to other settings

Answer 241

generalise to everyday life

Answer 242

did not mirror everyday life

Answer 243

-control group = easier to view impact of independent variable -standardised procedures to minimse impact of particiapnt variables -single and double blind -lie scale = questionnaires -triangulation

Answer 244

1 = false positive = accept alternate (significance level may be too high e.g 0.1%) 2 = false negative = accept null (signifiance level may be too low)

Answer 245

case study = longitudinal = studied over time = more holistic case studies involve several methods case studies = qualitative rich detailed data questionnaires = not descriptive (reductionist), social desiarability bias

Answer 246

functionally different

Answer 247

content analysis converts qualitative data to quantitative data

Answer 248

-content analysis is a form of observation which analyses the communication between people e.g in films, TV, speeches etc -aim is to summarise this communication in a systematic way so overall conclusions can be drawn -mainly secondary data

Answer 249

Coding categories are established prior to analysing the data (quantiative) to identify recurring themes and count up the number of times a particular word of phrase increases Furrham and Farragher (2000) --> examined TV adverts to see how often men and women are depicted in professional roles. More men were shown as professional compared to women.

Answer 250

Thematic analysis = a form of content analysis but the outcome is qualitative. The main process involves the identification of themes. A theme refers to a recurrent idea that keeps cropping up as part of the communication studied. Matthews et al (2012) = analysed 1200 instances of graffiti from toilet walls. Graffiti was coded according to distinct categories such as sexual references, socio-political, enetertainment etc. Males composed significantly more sexual and name writing graffiti whilst females was romantic posed significantly more sexual

Answer 251

-pilot = research must begin by observing the material and familiarising themselves with -coding = decide how the categories the material e.g counting the number of times a word of theme appears -tally = counts up recurring themes -analyse = data should be summarised

Answer 252

How to conduct thematic analysis: -familiarise yourseful with the data -generate initial code -search for themes -conclusions -produce the report

Answer 253

-offers a method to analyse a variety of forms of data including media and self-report methods so that insights into cultural trends and experiences can be understood -high external validity -flexible in terms of quantiative and qualitative data

Answer 254

-the identification of suitable themes and codes is subjective and decided by the researcher alone, meaning the conclusions lack objectivity

Answer 255

experimental design = independent groups = reduce order effects that could impact aim and determine cause and effect relationship. Ppt variables msut be controlled using random allocation. variables = 30mins exerecise, 30 mins no exercise. (be operationalised). DV = levels of happiness in a questionnaire on a scale from 1-10. (1= unhappy, 10 = very happy). Should be done at start of condition and range will be calculated. Control = time of day etc Questionnaire = done to obtain demographic information. Data analysis = table split between conditon 1 and 2 and determine the change in happiness score for all ppts. Calculate the median from the table (draw table in exam) infferential analysis = mann whitney = ordinal and independent groups.

Answer 256

order effects must be controlled and explain how counterbalancing would be used different tasks may be used as same conditions but the tasks should be of the same difficulty

Answer 257

=same tasks -headphones for listenting task so dont affect other group -time of day -word puzzles = same or same difficulty

Answer 258

-ensure content of the story is the same for both conditions -ensure same lenght of time is given to either hear or read the content provided -and same amount of time to answer questions about the content to test memory.

Answer 259

40 students aged 16-18 20 in each condition done by random allocation selection using opporunity sample

Answer 260

mention standardised instructions will be read out and then at the end be thanked and debriefed

Answer 261

music teacher would rate strength on scale from 1-10

Answer 262

thank ppts state aims reminder of confidentiality and protection of data state their right to withdraw and ask if they have any questions

Answer 263

event sampling

Answer 264

draw table behaviour, tally, total

Answer 265

use median

Answer 266

use tally chart for behavioural categories

Answer 267

-sample = 15 male and 15 female to remove gender bias -use opportunity sample = cost effective data = self-completion questionnaire w 2 critical questions and 3 irrelevant Data analysis = statistical test. type of graph used etc

Answer 268

-have an interviewer who was not present at the event investigated -open questions = rich, qualitative, detailed data -use questionnaire = no face to face data

Answer 269

idiographic and individualistic carried out in real world can be unreliable as it cant be replication

Answer 270

not identifiable by their name

Answer 271

-create a checklist of behaviours e.g crying or aggression -read through report and tally common behaviours -compare before and after

Answer 272

e.g thematic analysis mention examples of themes that could be assesed e.g family violence as a recurrent theme

Answer 273

as one co-variable increases, so does the other

Answer 274

-can study the relationship between variables that occur naturally = can suggest trends that lead to experiments -cannot determine cause and effect relationship

Answer 275

must always have title, labelled axis, key

Answer 276

two groups must be matched on a key variable e.g age or cognitive ability all particiapnts could be tested for this variable prior to the experiment

Answer 277

clearly visible

Answer 278

greater cause and effect

Answer 279

effects of research on participants * effects of publication on wider public * potential use of the findings, e.g. allocation of resources * potential use of the findings, e.g. political consequences – changes in legislation * potential bias against people of certain cultures / socioeconomic backgrounds * potential influence on moral attitudes towards individual / social and ethnic groups * economic implications, e.g. for further psychological research, e.g. funding etc * description of relevant evidence. Discussion: use of evidence to explain / elaborate / analyse the implications * how researchers have dealt with the implications * cost / benefit discussion, e.g. consideration of whether the benefits of publication outweigh the costs * short-term cost (at time of publication) versus long-term gain (in years to come and for future generations) * issues of reflexivity - the influential position of the researcher and researcher responsibility.

Answer 280

can be given to a large sample of people

Answer 281

Peer review is the process by which psychological research papers, before publication, are subjected to independent scrutiny by other psychologists working in a similar field who consider the research in terms of its validity, significance and originality.

Answer 282

remove any items in the questionnaire that were problematic/reduced validity

Answer 283

-would allow the researcher to establish whether the relationship is significant or due to chance -allows alternate hypothesis to be accepted -increase scientific credibility of the research -can more easily deduce the relationship

Answer 284

difference in scores is due to the independent variable only