Issues and Debates Flashcards

Question

year 1 ethnocentric studies

Answer 1

strange situation, Asch, Zimbardo, Milgram, definitions of abnormalities

Answer 2

-For example, Isreaeli children rarely meet strangers and as a result have high rates of resistant behaviour but this may be due to fear than the nature of maternal bonds --> differences the way in infants percieve the strange situation (Sagi et al 1991) -Same for German infants who have higher avoidant levels bc of the way parents approach parenting

Answer 3

Imposed etic --> when one culture is applied inappropriately to another (theories are considered to be universal based on emic research in one individual culture) -Eurocentric --> viewing the west as the centre of the word/superior to all other countries -Cultural bias in Strange situation = impact reliability and validity

Answer 4

-Western, educated, industrialised societies, rich, democratic (represents 12% of the world) -cultural background of researchers may lead to cultural bias due to investigator effects

Answer 5

-1992 64% of psychologers were America -assume findings carried out from individualistic cultures around the world e.g Asch + Milgram's study with US ppts was replicated in other parts of the world (Kilham + Mann) -Strange situation = ethnocentrism + cultural bias --> key defining variable of attachment as reaction to separation from parent -Imposed etic -> Ainsworth --> imposed her own cultural understanding on the rest of the world

Answer 6

-John Berry (1969) --> drawn a distinction between etic and emic approaches in the study of human behaviour. Etic = behaviour outside a culture and attempts to describe those behaviours as universal. Emic = inside cultures + behaviours specific to that culture so Ainsworths is an example of imposed etic.

Answer 7

-individualism vs collectivism --> individualistic = western, American, independent, personal freedom Collectivistic = such as India and China = interdependence of a group. Takano and Osaka found that 14/15 studies that compared that USA and Japan not as much an issue as we thought (strength + limitation) -cultural relativism vs universiality -->Berry's concept of imposed etic is a good reminder to psychologists to ensure their work is culturally specific. However, it should not be assumed that all behaviour is culturally relative. Ekman said that all basic facial expressions are the same in human and animal world. (interactional sychrony = universal) A full understanding is required -Unfamiliarity with research tradition --> Western cultures = increased risk of demand characteristics due to familiarity with aims and objectives. = adverse effect on validity of research situation -Bias in research methods: Smith and Bond surveyed research in one European textbook on social psychology and found that 66% of the studies were American, 32% European and 2% from the rest of the world. A considerable amount of psychology is based on middle class academic young adults who are males. This suggests that there is almost an institutionalised cultural bias in psychology, as students would be learning about ‘universal’ behaviours that were demonstrated only in certain cultures. -Strength --> challenge implicit assumptions --> cross-cultural research is that it may challenge our typical individualistic ways of thinking and viewing the world.

Answer 8

-Beta bias is...... -Milgram's obedience study showed high levels of this bc he used 40 male student ppts. 65% of ppts obeyed to the highest levels. From these results he generalised that people are more likely to obey authority figures, applying this to all including females even though there werent any in his sample population. This shows beta bias as he took the results gained from his study of males and applied them to females without considering gender differences in obedience.

Answer 9

Milgram’s study into obedience was originally conducted using 40 male American participants, but then also replicated using Spanish students (Miranda et al. found over 90% obedience rates in Spanish students) and Australian students (where only 16% of female participants continued to the highest voltage setting, as shown by Kilham and Mann). This suggests that Milgram’s original results were specifically bound to American cultures.

Answer 10

Alpha bias — Cultural relativism can lead to an alpha bias, where the assumption of real differences lead psychologists to overlook universals. Beta bias — Cultural relativism is often discussed in the context of defining mental disorder. Behaviours that are statistically infrequent in one culture may be more frequent in another, i.e. schizophrenia is claiming to hear voices but this experience is more common in African cultures, where hearing voices is a sign of spirituality and so individuals are more likely to openly report these experiences to their psychiatrist. By assuming the same rules universally we may diagnose some people as mentally ill but relative to the culture they may not be

Answer 11

human beings are self-determining and free to choose our own thoughts and actions. Free from coercion and moral/social restraints. However, doesn’t defy the impact of biological and environmental forces

Answer 12

-Determinism --> all behaviour is influenced by external forces (upbringing + learning) and internal forces (genes, chemicals etc) All behaviour is controlled and we dont exercise free will over our own behaviour

Answer 13

(fatalism) --> all human behaviour has a cuased and it should be possible to identify these causes. Compatible with aims of science --> assumes everything we think/do is dictated by forces we cannot control.

Answer 14

important feature of cognitive approach. While acknowledging that all human action has a cause, soft determinism believe there is room movement as we can choose certain behaviours.

Answer 15

-designed by adrian dove (1968), a black sociologist -developed IQ test using language that was common in the ghettos in America at the time to show that American children are not all speaking same language, therefore traditional IQ tests are bias -children from ghetto areas scored higher

Answer 16

1) definitions 2) alpha bias study 3) beta bias study 4) 4 evaluation paragraphs

Answer 17

Hard determinism: -behaviourist approach -biological approach -psychodynamic approach Soft determinism: -Social learning theory -cognitive Free will: -humantistic

Answer 18

AO1 --> free will, determinism, hard vs soft determinism, types of determinism, free will = humanistic, deterministic = genes + neurotrasnmitters in OCD AO3 --> for and against for each free will and determinism (4 paragraphs in total)

Answer 19

scientific research is based on the belief that all events have a cause. An independent variable is manipulated to have an effect on the dependent variable. Through repeating the research under controlled conditions (e.g. using a laboratory experiment) and performing statistical tests, a ‘cause and effect’ relationship can be established between two variables. This increases the scientific credibility of Psychology, through enabling the prediction and control of behaviour.

Answer 20

The Humanistic Approach — Humanistic psychologists argue that self-determinism is a necessary part of human behaviour. Rogers (1959) claimed that as long as an individual remains controlled by other people or other things they cannot take responsibility for their own behaviour and therefore cannot change it. Only when an individual takes self responsibility is personal growth or ‘self-actualisation’ possible. By taking such a stance, humanism has been praised as a positive approach, essentially seeing people as good and free to ‘better themselves’. Moral responsibility — The basis is that an individual is in charge of their own actions. The law states that children and those who are mentally ill do not have this responsibility but other than this, there is an assumption that normal adult behaviour is self determined

Answer 21

-focuses on the argument that genes determine our dispositions, behaviours and responses. All human behaviour is innate and determined by genes e.g Hill et al found the IGF2r gene is implicated in intelligence e.g OCD and SERT gene

Answer 22

-The view that behaviour is determined or caused by forces outside the individual. Our behaviour is caused by previous experiences learned through classical and operant conditioning. Cause of social and external environments g Skinners rats --> free will is an illusion

Answer 23

-Focuses on learned and unconscious behaviour guiding out actions. All mental processes are not spontaneous but are determined by the unconscious e.g Freud's psychosexual stages, defence mechanisms, Freudian slips e.g repression

Answer 24

Casual explanation --> basic principle of science that every event in the universe has a cause and what causes this change. Knowledge of causes are important as they allow scientists to predict and control events. For example, in the behaviourist approach positive reinforcement causes behaviour to be repeated again

Answer 25

Free will has good face validity — In everyday scenarios, we appear to be making our own decisions. Therefore, the idea of free will has good face validity because we appear to have free will in our day to day lives -Free will has high internal validity — Robert et al. found that adolescents with an internal locus of control (an individual’s idea of what controls events in their lives) are less likely to develop depression and are more likely to have better mental health, compared to those with an external locus of control. These differences in LOC and mental health states supports the idea that free will can be used to help us determine what controls our life events, and so we make such conscious decisions.

Answer 26

Illusion of free will — A person may choose to do something but these choices are determined by previous reinforcement contingencies, as suggested by the behaviourist approach. This is a hard deterministic stance. -Challenge to the idea of free will — Benjamin Libet et al (1983) recorded activity in motor areas of the brain before the person had a conscious awareness to move their finger. Chun Soon et al (2008) found activity in the prefrontal cortex up to 10 seconds before a person was aware of their decision to act. This suggests that the motor activity preceding movement occurred before the conscious decision was made, and so implies that all behaviour is pre-determined by up to 10 seconds.

Answer 27

Behaviourist approach -The entire physical universe operates on the deterministic principle. The universe is full of cause and effect relationships. So the deterministic view is scientific as we can use past events in similar situations to predict future behaviours.

Answer 28

100% genetic determinism is unlikely to be found for any behaviour. = Studies that compare monozygotic twins have found 80% similarity for intelligence and 40% for depression. This suggests that genes do not entirely determine behaviour and supports an interactionist standpoint. The fact that concordance rates for MZ twins are often higher than for siblings, despite both sharing 50% of genes, may be due to MZ twins being more likely to share the same environment. -Determinism simplifies human behaviour. = This may be appropriate for non-humans but human behaviour is less rigid and influenced by many factors i.e. cognitive factors which can override biological impulses. For example, aggression cannot be simplified to the action of the endocrine system and adrenaline. There are cognitive factors and accompanying emotions which are just as, or more important, than the biological aspects. -practical applications in the court of law --> offenders are held morally accountable for their actions = suggesting they are active agents over their behaviour

Answer 29

-environmental -psychic -biological

Answer 30

-environmental -biological

Answer 31

Highest level — Cultural and social explanations of behaviour e.g. depression being explained by a withdrawal from social activities, low energy levels and insomnia, which is viewed as odd by society. Middle level — Psychological explanations of behaviour e.g. depression being explained by Beck’s Cognitive Theory (the product of the cognitive triad of automatic negative thoughts, faulty information processing and negative self-schemas) and Ellis’ ABC model (an activating event produces an irrational belief which leads to an emotional or behavioural consequence). Lower level — Biological explanations of behaviour e.g. depression being explained by the action of candidate genes (e.g. 5HT1-D beta controlling the efficiency of synaptic serotonin transport) and neural factors (e.g. abnormal functioning of the left parahippocampal gyrus and the lateral frontal lobes).

Answer 32

-Reductionism = formulating explanations by breaking down theories into more fundamental units and processes. Relations between parts. E.g biological approach to OCD (neurochemical viewpoint etc) -An advantage of reductionism is that it promotes the cooperation between disciplines. However, much of human behaviour cannot be explained solely by one discipline e.g biological/neural etc. Tends not the work when explaining theories like attachment.

Answer 33

-Holism = all properties of a given system (biological, chemical, social) cannot be determined or explained by the sum of its component parts alone. View system as a whole. (study as an individualistic system rather than consituent parts) e.g humanistic approach

Answer 34

-self actualisation -treatments in psychology -social influence --> not only 1 factor affecting conformity -humanistic approach = all aspects of the individual -psychoanalysis = interaction of different factors

Answer 35

-Biological approach --> treatable with drugs + imbalance of chemicals -biological explanations of OCD -classical conditioning -behaviourist approach (skinner) -Wundts introspection = break conscious experiences into parts (structuralism)

Answer 36

we are biological organisms made up of physiological structures and processes thus all behaviour is at some point biological so can be explained through neurochemical/evolutionary etc factors e.g development of psychoactive drugs have increased understanding of neural processes / OCD and serotonin

Answer 37

Behaviourist approach is built on environmental reductionism. Only study observable behaviour and in doing so break complex learning into a simple stimulus-response idea measured within a lab. Key unit of analysis occurs at the physical level not cognitive. E.g systematic desensitzation to treat phobias (built on counter-conditioning)

Answer 38

-Reductionist approaches forms the basis of most psychological research; in order to create operationalised variables it is necessary to break target behaviours into consituent parts (behavioural categories). -Behaviourist approach = explains how complex learning can be broken down into a simple stimulus-response action. = greater credibility. - Consistent with the scientific approach — Scientific psychology aims to be able to predict and control behaviour. Therefore, reductionism is consistent with the aims of science because it allows for this. Smaller, constituent parts of behaviour are easily measured and manipulated under strict laboratory conditions, and so ‘cause and effect’ relationships between variables can be reliably established. Hence, reductionism raises the scientific credibility of psychology. -Practical application in the development of drug therapy — A reductionist approach towards researching and explaining mental disorders has led to the development of powerful and effective drug therapies e.g. SSRIs to treat depression, based on the view that a deficiency in serotonin causes depression (biological reductionism). This also reduces need for institutionalisation, where sufferers can continue with their day to day lives through the use of non-invasive treatment and without regular hospital visits. Therefore, reductionist approaches have had a positive impact on people’s lives.

Answer 39

-Accused of oversimplifying complex ideas = leads to loss of validity. Explanations that operate from a biological/genetic perspective rarely touch on social ideas from which certain behaviours can also stem. -Ignores the complexity of behaviour — Reductionist explanations may lead to a loss of validity because they ignore the social context where behaviour occurs, which often gives behaviour its meaning. For example, from a reductionist viewpoint, the act of speaking would be the same across all scenarios due to each individual having the same biological mechanism for this. However, such a view ignores the social context of this speaking, such as with the aim of alerting someone, voicing an opinion etc.

Answer 40

-often there are aspects of social behaviour that only emerge within a group context and cannot be undertsood from an indivdual group. E.g conformity to social roles in zimbardo's experiment. Interaction between the person and group of people was important. -interactionist approach = alternative to reductionism = different levels of an explanation can combine and interact. E.g diathesis stress model = multidisciplinary holistic approach -Provides a more complete picture: Some examples of behaviour can only be understood at the holistic level, such as the conformity and deindividuation of Zimbardo’s prisoners and guards in his Stanford Prison Experiment. Research into resisting conformity, such as Gamson’s work into the role of social support in groups, also makes use of holistic explanations by looking at the interactions within and between groups. Therefore, holistic explanations may provide a more ‘complete’ picture of behaviour.

Answer 41

-Tend not to experience rigorous scientific testing and can become vague and speculative. E.g humanistic psychology is critised for its lack of empirical testing. -However it is difficult to investigate the many differing types and levels of explanations: This poses a practical problem for researchers who attempt to combine many higher-level explanations, because it becomes difficult to identify which explanation is most influential and therefore which explanation it would be most useful to base treatment upon. Therefore, holistic explanations may not lead to the development of effective treatments for mental health disorders.

Answer 42

both = reduce a complex phenomena to one explanation but from opposite sides of the spectrum

Answer 43

AO1 support = one argument support = other argument interactionist/counterargument unsupport = one argument unsupport = other argument

Answer 44

-descartes = behaviour as result of hereditary -John Locke = blank slate -heritability co-efficient = 0 to 1.0 nuture = Richard lenner= different levels of the environment

Answer 45

identified different ‘levels’ of the environment, which ranged from pre-natal experiences (e.g. the mother’s physiological and psychological state during preganancy) to post-natal experiences (e.g. the socio-historical context within which the child grew up in). The view that the mind is a ‘blank slate upon which experience writes upon’ is typical of an empiricist/behaviourist approach e.g. John Locke.

Answer 46

— The process by which traits are passed from parents to their offspring, usually referring to genetic inheritance. The heritability coefficient can be used to quantify the extent to which a characteristic has a genetic basis. For example, intelligence appears to have a heritability coefficient of 0.5 (Plomin et al, 1994) and so the influences of nature and nurture are equal.

Answer 47

The more closely related two individuals are, the more likely that they will develop the same behaviours. The concordance rate for a mental disorder such as schizophrenia is 40% for MZ twins and 7% for DZ twins. This illustrates how nature plays a part in contribution to the disorder. However, concordance rates for MZ twins are not 100%, despite being genetically identical. This suggests that nurture and the environment also plays a significant role in development.

Answer 48

These are based on the principle that a behaviour which promotes survival will be naturally selected e.g. running away from fire or avoiding deep water. This is because such behaviours are adaptive, so the individual is more likely to survive to adulthood and reproduce. Bowlby proposed that attachment was adaptive as it meant an infant was more likely to be protected due to displaying social releasers (innate, ‘cute’ behaviours which activates the adult mammalian attachment system) and features of infant-caregiver interactions (such as interactional synchrony and reciprocity). As such, the infant would be more likely to survive and reproduce as an adult.

Answer 49

Behaviourists assume that all behaviour can be explained in terms of experience alone. Skinner used the concepts of classical and operant conditioning to explain learning and suggests that attachment could be explained in terms of classical conditioning where the food reduces the discomfort of hunger (negative reinforcement) and is therefore rewarding. Social learning theory — Bandura proposed that behaviour is acquired indirectly through operant and classical conditioning but also by directly through vicarious reinforcement. He acknowledged that biology had a role to play e.g. the urge to act aggressively could be biological but the way a person learns to express anger is through environmental influences (such as through observing and imitating the methods of expression of anger displayed by the identified role models). Other explanations — The double blind theory of schizophrenia (Bateson et al, 1956) suggests that schizophrenia develops in children who frequently receive contradictory messages from parents and these conflicting messages prevents the child from developing an internal consistent construction of reality. This is because when the child behaves incorrectly, they are punished by a withdrawal of love from their parents, leading them to believe that the world is dangerous (reflected in paranoid delusions) and confusing (reflected in disorganized thinking).

Answer 50

-include counterargument -in AO1 use examples from other topics -try find middle ground for final paragraph e.g interactionist approach Ao1 --> The holism vs reductionism debate investigates....Psychologists believe....There are several types of reductionism...Biological reductionism....For example...Environmental reductionism....For example...The holistic approach believes in....... Ao3 --> Support for the holistic approach....link to research or real life example...therefore we can establish.... Whereas, support for reductionism.....this led to....However....(counter argument) Ultimately, many psychologists would suggest and interactionist approach.....This shows how combining.....

Answer 51

group of patients with schizophrenia were compared to control group being treated with medication only. Results showed combination of two therapies = less symptoms

Answer 52

biological determinism -inheritance -biological -genetics -innate -hereditary

Answer 53

environmental determinism -culture -acquired -learned -social

Answer 54

Nature --> attachment = bowlby's montropy = social releasers = innate caused by evolution Nuture --> anisworth, maternal deprivation, cupboard love

Answer 55

-interactionist approach = attachment patterns and how the child's innate social releaser react to parent = mix of nature and nurture -diathesis stress model = genetic and environmental stressors -epigenetics = change in genetic activity without changing the genetic code e.g diet leaves "marks" on our DNA e.g Dias and Ressler gave male lab mice electric shocks everytime they were exposed to a chemcical (acetophenephone). The rats and their children feared its smell.

Answer 56

-Research by Gottesman and Shield's study into the genetic basis of schizophrenia. Compared 2 groups; child with adoptive parents and child with biological parents then compared concordance rate of schizophrenia between MZ and DZ twins. Higher incidence of schizophrenia in adopted children with a schizophrenic biological parent and concordance rate for MZ twins was 58%. -+ Nurture affects nature — Maguire et al study of london taxi drivers showed that the region of their brains with spatial memory was bigger than in controls, this is because the hippocampi had responded this way. Maguire et al. studied the brains of London taxi drivers and found a larger grey matter volume in the mid-posterior hippocampus, an area of the brain associated with spatial awareness (skills needed for taxi drivers when they are learning and completing ‘The Knowledge’ exam). There was a positive correlation between increasingly pronounced changes and an increasing length of time that individuals had been taxi drivers. This demonstrates the interactionist nature of empiricism and nativism, and gives further reason as to why the influences of the two cannot be separated. -Epigenetics — Refers to the material in each cell that acts like a switch to turn genes on or off e.g. DNA methylation and histone tail modification. Life experiences control these switches and these switches are passed on when the DNA is replicated semiconservatively. This is why MZ twins may differ in weight even though they were given the same diets, due to differences in upbringing/experiences causing differences in the individual expression of genes. For example, Caspi et al (2002) assessed antisocial behaviour in 1000 participants between birth and the age of 26. The researchers found that 12% of men with less MAOA gene expression had experienced maltreatment when they were babies but were responsible for 44% of crimes. This brings a third element into the nature-nurture debate: the experiences of previous generations!

Answer 57

-phenotype and genotype = not necessarily present = concordance rates are never 100% -Perhaps psychologists could adopt an interactionist approach --> shared vs unshared environment = manifest difference things. Tarrier = group of patients with schizophrenia were compared to control group being treated with medication only. Results showed combination of two therapies = less symptoms

Answer 58

-Little Albert's study into phobia's and association with counter conditioning. Developed specific phobia due to environmental experience. Adds credibility to theory = stimulus-response action -behaviour shaping used by behaviourists --> practical application in therapy = desirable behaviours are selectively reinforced

Answer 59

--+ Diathesis-Stress Model — A diathesis is a biological vulnerability. However not everyone with these ‘candidate’ genes will develop a disorder. The expression of the gene depends on experience in the form of a stressor which triggers the condition (a diathesis). This has been illustrated by Tienari et al (20040 who studied 145 Finnish adoptees whose mothers had schizophrenia and were then matched with a sample of 158 adoptees without this www.pmt.education genetic risk. The two groups were independently assessed after 12 years and of the total 303, 14 developed schizophrenia and 11 of these were from the high risk group. Children without a genetic risk but raised in a family climate characterised by tension and a lack of empathy did not develop SZ. However, children with a genetic risk and who experienced the same family climate did go on to develop SZ. This illustrates how being raised in a “healthy adoptive family” has a protective effect.

Answer 60

adopt this approach when psychologists are mainly concerned with studying what we share with others. That is to say in establishing laws of generalizations. Quantitive data and scientific methods, study human behaviour from the development of general principles and universal laws.

Answer 61

psychologists are interested in this approach bc they want to study individual closes and what makes us unique. Rejects the scientific method = not generalisable, qualitative data. Behaviour must be understood in terms of subjective experience (phenomentology)

Answer 62

3 kinds of general law --> classification (DSM), establishing principles (conformity and obedience), establishing dimensions (IQ) --> statistical analysis of groups and predictions

Answer 63

Phineas Gage, Little Hans, clive wearing and patient HM, humanistic --> The humanistic approach adopts a holistic and ‘phenomenological’ approach to research, which focuses on the experience of the individual. Such research methods were then used to develop the client-centred approach to therapy and Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

Answer 64

Pavlovs dog, Milgram, . The cognitive approach uses objective methods of measuring brain activity, such as EEG and PET scans. This allows cognitive psychologists to draw inferences about the workings of mental processes. 3. The biological approach also makes use of brain scans to make inferences about localisation of brain function. For example, the use of PET scans by Tulving et al. helped to establish that semantic memories were recalled from the left prefrontal cortex, whilst episodic memories were recalled from the right prefrontal cortex.

Answer 65

Milgram's obedience study is a nomothetic approach --> supports environmental determinism caused by situational variables (location, proximity, uniform), high internal validity, real life applications but lacks ecological validity

Answer 66

Freud interpreted the boys behaviour and reported dreams as a problem in the phallic psychosexual stage, Oedipus complex + castration anxiety. Unique to himself = idiographic. Limitation = generalising psychosexual stages is subjective that not all people experience Strength = highly descriptive --> supports psychic determinism

Answer 67

-in depth qualitative methods --> For example, the case studies conducted on HM and Clive Wearing demonstrated that different types of longterm memory are located in different areas of the brain. This led to the further research of localisation and memory -complete and global account of the individual --> patient HM = important understanding of normal and abnormal functioning

Answer 68

-cannot generalise to wider populations = cannot be made without further examination -methods are flexible and unstandardised so replication, prediction and control of behaviour is difficult -However it offers a narrow and restrictived perspective = Theories developed from case studies and (unstructured) interviews may struggle to be generalised beyond the individual, thus reducing the ecological validity of these findings. For example, the humanism widely uses the idiographic approach but is still viewed by many as a set of rather loose, abstract concepts, due to a lack of empirical evidence as well as being specific to the individual. Generalisations cannot be made without further examples to act as a baseline comparison. This means that the idiographic approach does not improve the scientific credibility of psychology. — The research methods used, such as case studies and unstructured interviews, lack scientific rigour = These methods rely heavily on individual and subjective interpretation. Therefore, conclusions are open to researcher bias, which reduces the reliability of the findings and the extent to which they can be generalised to other individuals. This translates to a lack of validity when developing theories and assumptions based upon the idiographic approach.

Answer 69

-empirical and reliable as it is stanzardised e.g IQ testing = greater scientific credibility -+ Highly scientific methods = The nomothetic approach makes use of research methods which objectively produce reliable data through adopting standardised conditions and a high level of control of extraneous and confounding variables. Constituent parts of the target behaviour can be reliably measured through the use of operationalised behavioural categories, thus increasing the internal validity of the findings. Since the findings will not be influenced by researcher bias, the findings have greater scientific creditability due to their method of collection. + Enables unifying laws and general principles to be reliably established = The focus on objectively collecting reliable data has led to certain ‘norms’ or standards of behaviour to be established, such as the average IQ score being 100. Such norms act as a good baseline comparison for intellectual abilities and mental disorders.

Answer 70

-approaches have been accused to losing the whole person e.g 1% of developing schizophrenia in the lifetime = little for what life is like for those experiencing disorder -reductionist and deterministic

Answer 71

-should be seen as complimentary approaches rather than conflicting. For example, Bowlby's explanation took a nomotherical approach but follow up research as idiographic and contrasted with his results -Milton and Davis (1996) suggest that research should start with a nomothetic approach and once general laws have been produced the focus should switch to an idiographic approach to develop our understanding and theories.Therefore, either approach can be used depending on the aims and nature of the research.

Answer 72

-Ethical guidelines --> informed consent, deception, confidentiality, debriefing, withdrawal, protection

Answer 73

Ethical issues arise when there is a conflict between psychology's need to gain valid and valuable research whilst also preserving the dignity of ppts

Answer 74

Example of studies that broke ethical guidelines --> Zimbardo's prison study, Milgram's obedience study, Harlow's monkey study Issues of breaking ethical guidelines = research is non-replicable, harm ppts

Answer 75

Ethics refers to the correct rules of conduct necessary when carrying out research. We have a moral responsibility to protect research participants from harm. However, psycholgists need to remember that they have a duty to respect the rights and dignity of research participants

Answer 76

Ethical implications --> the impact that psychological research may have in terms of the rights of other people especially ppts. This includes at a societal level/influencing public policy etc --> barriers in research that reduce validity and falsifiability

Answer 77

The ethics of social sensitive research -> psycholgists sometimes carry out research which can have significant implications both for the ppts and the wider community

Answer 78

Ethical guidelines --> protect ppts --> advice for psycholgists to follow as they do research/provide treatments --> how to safely and reponsibly conduct a study Ethical issues --> arise when the research being conducted may impose a form of physical or psychological harm on the participants or general population Ethical implications --> the impact that psychological research may have in terms of the rights of other people especially ppts

Answer 79

Socially sensitive research (controversial) --> studies in which there are potential consequences of implications, either direct for ppts in the research or for the class of individuals represented by the research. Implications = discrimination, bias, prejudice etc

Answer 80

Bowlby's theory of maternal deprivation is a socially sensitive study as it places emphasis on the role of the mother as the most important caregiver. Self fufilling propehcy and make male fathers feel inadequate. Other socially sensitive research = Milgram, Freud, Grossman, Loftus and Palmer, sperry's split brain research

Answer 81

The research question --> The research must consider their research question carefully. Asking questions like "are there racial differences in IQ" damaging to members of a particular group The methodology used --> The researcher needs to consider the treatment of the ppts and their right to confidentiality/anonymity e.g if a person admits to a crime should it remain confidential The institutional context --> The researcher should be mindful of how the data is going to be used and consider who is running the research -> how they intend to use the findings The interpretation and application of findings --> Finally, the researcher needs to consider how their findings must be interpreted and applied in the real world

Answer 82

-Scarr argues that studies of under-represented groups and issues may promote greater understanding to help reduce prejudge and encourage acceptance e.g research into the unreliability of EWT has reduced risk of issues in legal system - Social Control = Socially sensitive research has historically been used as ‘scientific justification’ for discriminatory practices. For example, during the 1920s and 1930s, some states in the USA issues voluntary sterilization programmes for citizens who were deemed as ‘unfit to breed’. These included the mentally ill, the disabled and drug addicts. This was based upon William Shockley’s Voluntary Sterilisation Bonus Plan, which encouraged low-IQ individuals to undergo sterilization. Such a programme was based upon his fraudulent and incorrect research where “preliminary research suggested that an increase of 1% in Caucasian ancestry raises Negro IQ an average of one point for low IQ populations, with diminishing returns approaching 100 IQ”. Therefore, socially sensitive research can be and has been used for malicious and unjust ends. -+ Cost-benefit analysis = When deciding whether certain research projects should be allowed to continue, ethics committees undergo a cost-benefit analysis, where the benefit of the research (such as contribution to the existing field of knowledge) is compared to the costs of breaching ethical guidelines. However, some ethical implications of socially sensitive research may be particularly difficult to predict, such as the impact of such research on legislation and the way in which certain groups of people are perceived by the public.

Answer 83

-— Research could be potentially misused so psychologists should take responsibility for the presentation of findings = For example, Packard proposed the idea of ‘subliminal messaging’, where he found that when pictures of Coca Cola and popcorn were projected onto cinema screens for split seconds, so that audience members could not see it, their sales increased significantly. However, it was discovered that Packard had completely made up his results! Although the implications in this case were not serious, such an example shows the power of socially sensitive research and how it can be misused. -cyril Burt (11+ exams) -Sieber and Stanley warn that the way questions are phrased may influence the way in which findings are interpreted (Cross cultural research may be blighted by ethnocentrisim). Researchers must approach their studies with an open mind to avoid misrepresenting minority groups

Answer 84

-Researchers should be aware of the implications of their research into anti-social behaviour and linking this to "social background". This could have a negative impact for the children in the sample and could lead to discrimination if it is found that social behaviour is more likely in people from a specific social background. They should consider the wording of the question. -When dealing with the results researchers should take adequate steps to ensure confidentialty and anonyminity....this could lead to a self-fuflling prophecy

Answer 85

-use both male and female ppts -use both male and female researchers -do not exaggerate differences between males and females when they are not present (alpha bias)

Answer 86

they would need to use a Chi-squared test/statistical test/inferential test with the data * in this case there is categorical/nominal data and an independent design * the result of the test (the observed/calculated value) would be compared to the critical table value at the 0.05 level * if there is a less than 5% probability that the difference is due to chance, then the students could say the difference is significant * then they can accept their research hypothesis (reject the null)

Answer 87

The idea that a behaviour can only be properly understood/only has meaning/only makes sense in the context of the norms and values of the society or culture in which it occurs.

Answer 88

-cross-cultural research rather than sole cutlure -do not assume universal standards across different cultures

Answer 89

- a paradigm is a set of shared assumptions/beliefs about how behaviour/thought is studied/explained eg a focus on causal explanations of behaviour * a shift occurs where members of a scientific community change from one established way of explaining/studying a behaviour/thought to a new way, due to new/contradictory evidence eg shifting focus from cause to free will. * this shift leads to a ‘scientific revolution’ eg the cognitive revolution in the 1970s and the current emphasis on cognitive neuroscience.

Answer 90

If the researcher used a nomothetic approach he would have to involve testing a larger sample of offenders. This larger sample should involve a method of sample selection to give representativeness of a larger population such as random sampling of the prison population. The researcher should also use a testable hypothesis such violent offenders have more negative thoughts about childhood than non violent offenders. The researcher can then use this approach to collect a large amount of data that can analysed using quantitative methods like statistical testing which then enables the researcher to draw conclusions in relation to a wider population. Nomothetic approach is useful as while it provides less in-depth information compared to idiographic approach it allows the formulation of general laws in this case about offending behaviour and their childhood.

Answer 91

Some psychologists believe that human behaviour is due to our genetics and our biology so they believe our human behaviour is due to nature. Other psychologists believe that human behaviour is learnt from our environment meaning they take a nurture view of behaviour. There is a debate which one has more influence on our behaviour.

Answer 92

Ao1 = cultural relativism (Jahoda), ethnocentricism (Milgram), Imposed etic (Strange situation), emic constructs (Rutter's Romanian orphanage) Ao3 = individualistic vs collectivism = knwledge has blurred as Takano and Oska found 14/15 studies had no cultural distinction between them Ao3 = cultural relativism vs universiality = Ekman = basic facial expressions are universal + Strange situation while be cultural biased interactional synchrony is observed which is universal. Needs a clear understanding of both in psychological research Ao3 = Demand characterists in cultural research e.g Mead and Samoan tribes. Exaggeration of behaviours leads to a loss of validity

Answer 93

Brain scanning e.g. fMRI, EEG Concordance rates as used in twin studies DNA analysis via urine or saliva samples The heritability coefficient can be used to determine the extent to which phenotype is determined purely by genotype - or by other, external factors Heritability is calculated as a figure ranging from 0 to 1 A value of 1 means that the behaviour/trait is purely genetic A value of 0.5 means that half of the behaviour/trait is genetic and half is determined by environment A value of 0.1 means that the behaviour/traits is not genetic and is determined by environment

Answer 94

Bowlby’s theory of attachment is an example of a pro-nature argument as he based his ideas on the work of ethologists such as Lorenz, concluding that attachment is an essential evolutionary mechanism needed for the survival of the species

Answer 95

Research which is relevant to nurture includes classical conditioning and operant conditioning as part of behaviourism conformity to social roles as in the Stanford Prison experiment field studies such as Schaffer & Emmerson (1964)

Answer 96

oversimplify = reduce meaning = decreased validity

Answer 97

The study implicitly assumed that the American culture and its norms were the standard against which obedience should be measured. By comparing the results to potential German subjects, Milgram's initial intent was to see if Americans were as obedient as his presumed expectation for Germans, which is an example of ethnocentrism

Answer 98

androcentricism is prevent within current psychological research = places an overemphasis on biology failure to function adequality definition of abnormality consider gender differences between men and women researchers may have different expectations of results between men and women in psychological research research into fight/flight = used only male mice in lab experiments implicatons = reinforce stereotypes

Answer 99

fixation etc = psychosexual stages unaware of his early experiences because they are repressed by the unconscious through Oedipus complex Dancho has identified with his concert pianist father

Answer 100

-contrast with free will = bring in soft determinism -links with the behaviourist approach = support for environmental determinism -causal explanations -question in offending behaviour

Answer 101

All variables controlled except for the independent variable any change to the DV must be due to the manipulation of the IV use of control variables enables cause and effect relationship

Answer 102

-the debate showcases the relative importance of hereditary and the environment in governing behaviour -nature =hereditary is more influence -nurutre = environment and experience -nature side is founded in nativist theory of innate abilities -nurture side is founded in empiricist theory e.g Locke's view of tabula rassa

Issues and Debates Flashcards

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