Gender Flashcards

Question

male brain sex differences

Answer 1

After 6 years old: -hypothalamus is larger -language tasks -men use only left hemisphere -superior for visuo-spatial skills -supermale syndrome = XYY

Answer 2

After 6 years old -hypothalamus is smaller -both sides of the brain used in language tasks -some women have Y chromosome but are otherwise biologically women -superior for verbal skills

Answer 3

-Embryo is concieved --> zygote --> at 6 weeks gonads develop --> SRY gene --> Gonads produce hormones --> testosterone and oestrogen --> hormones affect pre-natal brain development --> hormones affect behaviour after birth

Answer 4

-Evidence to support role of chromosomes and hormones --> James Dabbs et al (1995) found that in a prison population, offenders with the highest levels of testoesterone were more likely to have comitted violent crimes. Stephanie et al --> studied transgender individuals who where undergoing hormone treatment and being injected with hormones of the opposite sex. Transgender women = decrease in visuo-spatial skills

Answer 5

-Contradictory evidence --> double blind study by Ray Tricker et al --> 43 males were either given placebo or testosterone. No significant dfiferences were found between 10 week period of the 2 groups. --> limit extent to which meaningful generalisations can be made -objections to pre-menstural syndrome --> questioned the extent to which it can become a medical category. Rodin 1992 = PMS is a social construction -overemphasis on nature --> importance of social learning theory

Answer 6

-affects 1/500 and 1/1000 men -XXY = 1 more chromosome (total 47) -Any sex chromosome that deviates from usual XY/XX formation --> tend to be associated with distinct patterns pf physical and psychological symptoms -individuals who are affected by this are biologically male with an anatomical appearance of male Physical --> breast tissue, reduced body hair Psychological --> poor language, reading etc Treatments --> testosterone supplements + speech and language therapy (SaLT)

Answer 7

-affects 1/5000 biologically female -loss of 1 chromosome (XO) --> total 45 chromosomes -physical --> webbed neck, no periods, shorter, undeveloped breasts -psychological --> socially immature + higher than average reading ability -Treatments = hormone treatment Atypical = sex chromosome pattern which deviates from usual XY/XX chromosome formation

Answer 8

-contribute to nature vs nurture debate --> understanding of atypical sex chromosomes = See the psychological and behavioural differences between the 2 groups. -practical application --> lead to more accurate diagnosis = increase awareness -->establish if behaviours are genetic or not

Answer 9

-However, there are environmental explanations --> not causal relationships --> environmental and social influences may be important in chromosomal abnormalites. Treated immaturely from others -potential issues with generalisability

Answer 10

-Kohlbergs theory -gender schema theory

Answer 11

-The basis behind the cognitive approach to gender considers our thought processes and cognitions. A child's understanding of gender becomes increasingly sophisticated with age as their thinking becomes more sophisticated. Children being with a simple understanding of gender which gradually becomes more mature over complex stages.

Answer 12

gender identity gender stability gender constancy

Answer 13

1) Gender identity --> Ages 2-3.5 years --> Not aware that sex is permanent. Label gender but only based on appearance. Understanding tends not the stretch much beyond simple labelling e.g a man wearing a skirt is female

Answer 14

2) Gender stability --> Ages 3.5-4.5 --> Gender is not consistent overtime but not across situations. Appearance is still a factor. Identifies that people can change sex if they engage in activities that are more associated with the opposite gender. E.g a female builder or if a man has long hair it’s a women

Answer 15

3) Gender constancy --> Age 6 years --> Gender is constant across time and situations. Gender appropriate behaviour and identify their own gender. No longer fooled by changes in outward appereance. E.g a man is still a man despite wearing a dress

Answer 16

It is only when children understand gender constancy he/she will become highly motivated to behave in a way that is expected of them as boy or girl (up until this stage, such information is not really relevant as the child believes their gender may change). -Children pay attention and show systemic gender role behaviours only after they fully understand that gender is for lif

Answer 17

-got children ages 2-6 to look at a male ken doll and ken doll with a skirt on -those at younger ages though the ken doll become a women when it wore a skirt -ages 6 believed that the ken doll was still a man despite its outward appearance

Answer 18

-gender constancy is also significant in that children of this age being to seek out gender-appropriate roles to identity with and imitate (social learning theory). The child has fully developed and internalised concept of gender at constancy age.

Answer 19

-Evidence for gender labelling comes from Thompson who showed that gender identification was more accurate in 3 years (90%) than 2 years old (76%) --> suggesting our cognitive skills mature -Slaby and Frey asked young children "when you grow up wil you be more like mummy or daddy" --> children did not recognise these traits were stable overtime until they were 3 or 4 -McConaghy's study showed children in Kohlbergs gender stability stage determined by the gender of the dolls by their clothing rather than genitalia -- Piaget conducted a set of stages in which children appear to develop through cognitively. - at around 6/7, children are described as 'egocentric' and assume everyone sees the world the way they do. - when they 'decentre', children begin to accept that their views may be different to others. - they also develop 'conservation' when they realise so one or something can remain the same even if their outward appearance changes.

Answer 20

-Evidence to support the sequency of stages --> Slaby and Frey --> Children were presented with split-screen images of males and females performing the same task. Younger children spently roughly the same time watching both sexes. Children in constancy stage spent more time watching those of the same sex. -universiality of this theory --> Munroe et al --> cross-cultural evidence of Kholberg's theory in countries as far as Kenya -in line with biological approach

Answer 21

-constancy is not supported --> Kohlberg's theory is undermined by the observation that many children begin to demonstrate gender appropriate behaviour before constancy is achieved. Bussey and Bandura found that children as young as 4 reported "feeling good" about gender appropriate toys. -Methodological issues --> theory was developed using interviews. Kholberg did not acknowledge that the questions are too complex for younger children. Do not possess verbal ability to articulate their ideas - problems of researcher bias due to Kohlberg conducting the interviews himself and having expectations (based upon his stages of intellectual development), means that the stages of gender development/identity are likely to be biased and lack ecological validity. -Kohlberg’s stages of gender development and identity suffers from biological determinism as well as biological reductionism. This is because Kohlberg placed great emphasis on neurodevelopmental or maturational changes in the child, biological in origin, which were said to trigger transitions between the different stages. The theory also ignores the social influences, an example of determinism, which may affect the extent to which each child identifies with a specific gender e.g. parenting style, the parents’ own gender identity, media portrayals of gender ideals and the various psychological and personality aspects of gender. Therefore, Kohlberg’s theory may not be considered universal, as suggested by Munroe et al.

Answer 22

mental constructs that develop via experience and are used by our cognitive system to organise knowledge. Contribute to stereotypes etc

Answer 23

-In group --> groups you identify with --> much better understanding of schema's that are appropriate to their own gender -Out group --> groups you don’t identify with --> much better understanding of opposite gender identity -Gender is acquired by gathering information about own gender, this happens before gender constancy.

Answer 24

Gender schema is a generalised representation of everything we know in relation to gender and gender-appropriate behaviour.

Answer 25

Schema direct behaviour and self-understanding --> for young children, schema form from stereotyped views and later becomes a fixed perception. In groups and out groups --> in group improves child self-esteem

Answer 26

-Bradbard et al (1986) --> When 4-9 year olds were told that certain neutral items were in fact boy or girl items they took greater interest in the ingroup labelled toys. A week later more details about the ingroup toys were accurately recalled than the toys in the outgroup. Against research: -Hoffman (1998) found that children whose mothers work have less stereotyped views of what men do. Suggesting children are not entirely fixed on gender schemas and can take on some gender inconsistent ideas.

Answer 27

-juxtaposes Kholbergs view that the process only beings after all 3 stages (7 years) with gender constancy -the research showed children pictures which included males and females in gender roles and non-gender roles. They asked children to recall pictures of people Findings --> children under 6 recalled more gender consistent ones (male fire fighters) than gender-inconsistent ones (male nurse) -Once the child has established gender identity they will search for information which encourages the development of the gender schema -Children will adopt a genderalised view of gender identiity when they have congitive perception of associated behaviours

Answer 28

-kholberg -> Gender consistency is the cause of gender identitity "my gender isnt going to change so I should start behaving like a boy" -schema --> Gender identity is the cause of gender consistency "I'm a boy so I should find out how boys are supposed to behave"

Answer 29

-Evidence to support gender schema theory --> Martin and Halveson (consistency) -rigidity of gender beliefs --> young children tend to hold very fixed and rigid gender attitudes --> children display a strong in group bias in terms of how they process information-> children pay more attention to information relevant to their own experience.

Answer 30

-overemphasis on the role of individual in gender development --> needs to take social roles into account. - Gender schema theory takes on a hard determinist stance when explaining gender identity development. The theory suggests that, hypothetically, it should be possible to change a child’s behaviour if you change their stereotypes or provide them with conflicting stimuli from the opposite gender. However, research, such as that conducted by Kane and Sanchez (1994) has found that schemas and pre-conceived ideas about gender roles and gender equality are very difficult to break and so have little impact on behaviour. This means that the idea of gender schemas takes a very rigid outlook on gender development.

Answer 31

-0-1 = oral stage --> fixation = recklessness, vanity, self pride etc -1-3 = anal stage --> fixation = retentive or expulsive -3-6 = phallic stage --> over gratified or undergratified -6-12 = latency stage --> no fixation = repression -12+ = genital stage --> no fixation and formation of heterosexual relationships

Answer 32

-prior to reaching the phallic stage (3-6) children have no concept or gender identity. Freud descried pre-phallic children as bisexual in the sense that they are neither masculine or feminine. In the phallic stage the focus of pleasure for the child switches to genitals. Oedpius or electra complex is crucial in the formation of gender identity

Answer 33

-boys develop incestuous feelings towards their mother (habour a jealous and murderous hatred for the father who stands in the way of the boy possessing his mother). -experiences castration anxiety -to resolve this conflict the boy gives up his love for his mother and begins to identify with the father

Answer 34

-At the same age, girls experience Penis Envy, seeing mother as competition for their father's love. Girls develop a double resentment towards their mother (lack of penis envy and love rival). Electra complex came from Carl Jung.

Answer 35

-children of both sexes identify with the same-sex parent as a means of resolving their respective complexes -boys adopt the attitudes and values of their fathers and girls of their mothers -children falling on board the gender identity of their same sex parent is known as internalisation -both boys and girls receive second hand gender identity all at once at the end of the phallic stage

Answer 36

-Little Hans = case study example = where Freud believed that Little Hans’ phobia of horses was the result of the displacement (a defence mechanism) of castration anxiety from his father, onto the horse

Answer 37

-internal validity + explanation for acquiring gender identity

Answer 38

-Research does not support the oedipus complex --> Freud's theory implies that sons of very punitive and harsh fathers should go on to develop a more robust sense of gender identity than other boys bc of higher levels of anxiety so produce higher identification with the aggressor. However, this is not supported by Blackmore and Hill 2008 --> boys with liberal fathers tend to be more secure in their masculine identiity -inadequate account of female development (androcentrism and gender bias) --> Freud's notion of Penis envy was critised for being patriarchal. Karen Horney argues "womb envy"in react to a women's nurture and ability to sustain life. -Freud’s psychodynamic explanations of gender development can be said to lack scientific rigour, as well as the emphasis on objectivity and replicability associated with the natural sciences. This is a particular problem with the case study of Little Hans - Freud conducted the interviews himself, drawing very subjective interpretations of the data, which is likely to have poor inter-rater reliability due to the multiple subjective conclusions which can be drawn. Therefore, the ideas of the Oedipus and Electra Complexes are far from universal, and is capable of little generalisability to the general population because a baseline comparison must be provided by further examples.

Answer 39

-learn and acquire gender identity through imitation Assumptions of social learning theory: -explaining behaviour that includes both direct and indirect reinforcement, combining learning theory with the role of cognitive factors -learn through observation and imitation of others in a social context -learning occurs directly through classical and operant conditioning -children acquire gender identity and associated behaviour through SL concepts

Answer 40

-behaviours that are reinforced are then imitated (Especially if that behaviour is rewarded) -SLT is focused in nuture in childs development

Answer 41

children are more likely to be reinforced for demonstrating behaviour that is gender appropriate e.g boys being athletic

Answer 42

the way in which boys and girls are encouraged to show distinct gender appropriate behaviour, through this, children learn gender identity

Answer 43

if the consequences of another persons behaviour are favourable that behaviour is more likely to be imitated by the child. If the consequences are unfavourable the behaviour is less likely to be imitated

Answer 44

Imitation --> individual observes a role model's behaviour and copies it Identification --> children are much likely to imitate the behaviour of people wth whom they identify called role models (modelling) Modelling --> when someone is influential in some way

Answer 45

-SLT is often described as the "bridge" between traditional learning theory and the cognitive approach. How mental factors mediate when a new response is acquired -attention, retention, reproduction, motivation -observed behaviours may be stored by the observer and reproduced at a later time

Answer 46

Bandura bobo doll --> acquire appropirate gender behaviour through observation in social context

Answer 47

-rewards boys for being athletic -gender stereotypical expectations -differential treatment of their daughters and sons e,g fathers would be more physically aggressive to sons -observe and imitate parents -traditional gender view vs creative gender parenting

Answer 48

making fun of someone for being too feminine or too masculine -in group interactions if peers influence gender appropriate behaviours -gender bias reinforced by peers -observe and imitate peers

Answer 49

-takes thought processes into account and acknowleges the role that they play in deciding whether a behaviour should be imitated or not (mediational processes) -successfully explain the initiation of certain behaviours e.g why someone would start smoking -supporting evidence --> Smith and Lloyd involved 4-6 month old babies were dressed half the time in boys clothes and half the time in girls clothes. When observed by adults those assumed to be boys were given a hammer shaped rattle and for girls they were handed a cuddly teddy. Suggests that gender-approporate behaviour is reinforced from an early age = creates reinforcement -explains changing gender roles --> shift in social expectations and cultural norms over time meant that new forms of acceptable behaviour have been reinforced e.g androgyny

Answer 50

-learning theory is not a full explanation of behaviour e.g if there is no role model or psychpathtic behaviour in family is not caused by imitation -Bandura's experiment = artificial so lacks ecological validity = little about how children learn in everyday life -reductionist --> don’t mention biological factors -A comparison with Freud’s psychodynamic explanation of gender development would suggest there are significant differences. For example, the hallmark of the psychodynamic approach is the emphasis on unconscious internal conflicts between the different parts of the personality (Id, ego and superego) over which we have no control, as opposed to seemingly ‘obvious’ conscious mediational processes. Therefore, through the idea of psychic determinism, individuals are said to have no control over the resolution of such conflicts and therefore no control over their own gender development! This implies that unconscious forces are more important in gender development than the social influences of others, alongside the mechanisms of reinforcement. -— A comparison with the biological approach to explaining gender differences, specifically the role of atypical sex chromosome patterns and hormones such as androgens, suggests that SLT may suffer from an over-reliance on social influences on gender development. Therefore, it is now accepted that most researchers take a biosocial approach where they suggested innate biological differences can either be emphasised or even overridden through the mechanisms of SLT and (vicarious or differential) reinforcement. This means that SLT and the biological approach are at polar ends of the nature versus nurture debate, and that an interactionist ‘middle-ground’ would be a more accepted and accurate explanation of gender development. -not a developmental theory --> doesn’t provide adequate response to how behaviours change with age e.g motor reproduction suggests that children struggle to perform behavours if they are intellectually incapable. Andrew Dubin (1992) suggests that selection and imitation doesn’t come till later. Influence of age and maturation is key

Answer 51

AO1 = culture, media, learn vicariously, studies which demonstrate cultural influences, studies which demonstrate media influences AO3 = real life application difficulty in research limited by ignoring biology

Answer 52

Pinagree ‘70- When children were shown ads with non-traditional gender roles stereotyping was reduced.

Answer 53

One mark for identification of a relevant problem. Up to two marks for relating the problem to the study. Likely studies: Mead – Three tribes; La Fromboise; Buss etc. Likely problems: validity; researcher bias; ethnocentrism; subjectivity on the part of the researcher, lack of inter-rater reliability etc. Maximum of one mark if answer is totally generic and no study is identifiable. This question required students to focus on a methodological problem of a study in which cultural variations in gender development were investigated. The first issue was that some of the studies chosen were not about cultural variation. The second was that some students lost focus and instead described the study rather than explaining the problem identified. Even when a methodological problem was given the explanations were often a jumble of psychological terminology such as – researcher bias, subjecti

Answer 54

gender differences are caused by innate tendencies that are modified by environmental factors

Answer 55

natural experiment but social desirability bias

Answer 56

gender bias = only focused on women

Answer 57

The evidence from these studies has largely been collected by WESTERN RESEARCHERS working in a mixture of Western and non Western cultures. Even if indigenous (local) researchers are carrying out the research they are still likely to be using tests developed by Western psychology. Such measures are described as Imposed Etics tests that produce results which may be meaningless in a culture other than the one in which the tests were developed. Therefore cross cultural research is a victim of Culture Bias! (A02)

Answer 58

Evolution? Kimura (1999) – In hunting societies, those with poor spatial perception are likely to die out. Therefore there are no genes left in the gene pool. Therefore in societies where both men and women hunt, this could be why there are less differences in spatial abilities. Historical/Economical Changes? Eagly & Wood – Wealth = greater role equality. In societies where increased socioeconomic development had occurred, women had a higher status. The division of labour between men & women was less pronounced.

Answer 59

Van Leeuwen (1978) – Male superiority on spatial tasks was highest in sedentary societies where the division of labour is at its greatest. Men will be given practice from early childhood, in skills related to hunting. Schlegel & Barry (1986) - In societies where women take an equal role in hunting, women are allowed more freedom. This suggests that women take a higher position within their society and are less likely to feel the need to conform to the stereotypes/norms/demands of the more powerful members of society.

Answer 60

-collectivist = emphasis placed on the importance of the group/family unit. Individual success is much less important, it is more the group is successful e.g Kenya

Answer 61

-subculture = subgroups that exist within the same culture yet may have different norms for acceptable behaviour

Answer 62

-individualistic = emphasis placed on the important of independence and individual success. Often applies to Western cultures.

Answer 63

-culture = the whole way of life of a particular group or society. Things are passed down from generation to generation through socialization. Cultures are different around the world and change over time.

Answer 64

Similar traits across different cultures = innate factors in human nature Different traits across different cultures = nurture + environmentally determined

Answer 65

Mead (1935) --> studied gender roles and behaviours in three different tribal societies living close to eachother in new Guinea. She documented the tribe's lifestyle day to day (differed substanstially). Arapresh tribe = high value on co-operation = both boys and girls were gentle and loving. Mundugumor tribe = children were fierce and arrogant = both men and women hated pregnancy Tchambuli tribe = men were regarded as emotional and unfit for serious decisions, differing greatly to Western cultures Malinowski (1929) --> studied Trobian islanders. In documenting their sexual behaviour he reported the women were highly sexually aggressive. = repuation to their tribe Buss et al (1990) --> examined the features women and men look for in potential partners. In all of 37 cultures they compared women's concerns in finding a mate were financial and status while for men it was physical attractiveness.

Answer 66

However, there are also similarities between cultures concerning gender roles. For example, Munroe and Munroe (1975) suggested that the labour and tasks given to women and men, in the traditional sense, across various cultures is often determined by the traditional divide between men and women i.e. women tend to the house, whilst men are more skilled at manual labour.

Answer 67

-masculine people who behave in a feminine manner and attracted to males (androphillic) = in western cultures they would be known as homosexual but in Somoa = "in the manner of a women" = 3rd gender

Answer 68

Strengths = high validity + natural study = has mundane realism Limitations: -criticisms of Mead's research --> observer bias = lack longitudinal validity. Freeman (1983) was highly critical of Mead's research and concluded her results were flawed as she was mislead by a ppts. -issue of imposed etic --> Western researchers take on observing indigenous cultures = may impose western cultures on these indigenous ppl. — Such cross-cultural research may also be guilty of imposed etic, as suggested by Bowlby. This is when researchers study behaviour from outside a specific group and generalise this as being universal. Just because cultural differences in gender roles exist within -correlation = not causation

Answer 69

-The media provide role models with whom children may identify with and want to imitate. As we have seen, children are likely to select role models who are the same sex as they are and who engage in gender-appropriate behaviour, as this is more likely to be reinforced

Answer 70

Bussey and Bandura (1999) found that men are independent, ambitious and advice givers whilst women are dependent, unambitious and advice listeners. Similarly a study of TV adverts by Furnham and Frarragher (2000) found that men were more likely to be shown in autonomous or professional roles whilst women are seen as occuping domestic settings.

Answer 71

There is also evidence that children who have more exposure to popular forms of media tend to display more gender stereotypical roles (McGee and Frueh 1980). May also provide the success in adopting these gender roles. (self-efficacy)s

Answer 72

-real life applications + research support e.g Bussey and Bandura -Social learning theory suggests we learn gender roles by observation of role models and we copy or imitate the models we see, especially if we see those models being rewarded or reinforced for such behaviours. The media provides us with role models, and often males and females in the media are portrayed in gender-stereotypical ways; for example, females looking after children and males as breadwinners. If there are cultural differences in gender roles, we can explain these through socialisation and experience, which is how social learning theory suggests we acquire gender roles.

Answer 73

-Correlation not causation --> media may only be reflecting prevailing gender stereotypes and social norms about males and females. As most ppts are exposed to media a control group cannot be established. -Counter stereotypes = Disney movie Brave contradicts typical notions of masuclinity and femininety. Pingree (1978) demonstrated that female infants are more appreciative and accepting of media which presents other females in non-traditional roles, whilst male infants are more ‘set in their ways’, suggesting that there are significant gender differences in their perception of their own and the opposite gender’s traditional stereotype and role. -The conclusions based on studies investigating the influence of media on gender roles must take into account the lack of control groups, because the vast majority of children are exposed to media on a consistent basis from a very young age. Therefore, there can be no statistical analysis to determine whether the influence of media is statistically significant and whether this influence is stronger than other confounding and extraneous variables which are also associated with media exposure e.g. the length and intensity of exposure.

Answer 74

gender behaviour = universal or culturally specificm

Answer 75

reinforces seterotypical gender perspectives

Answer 76

learned via observation e.g young boy may identify with female role models so imitate more female behaviour instead of approprate masculinity

Answer 77

-define gender dysphoria + DSM -brain sex theory (biological) -research (zouh) -separation anxiety (Social) -research (stoller)

Answer 78

-Gender dysphoria is a condition where a person experiences discomfort or distress because theres a mismatch between their biological sex and gender identity. -biological sex is assigned on birth due to genitalia but this is different to gender identity e.g a person may have the anatomy of a man but identify as a women -gender dysphoria is recognised as a medical condition -Many individuals with GID will identify themselves as transgender and may opt for gender reassignment surgery to change their external genitalia to that of the desired sex

Answer 79

Gender dysphoria = characterised by strong, persistent feelings of identification with the opposite gender and discomfort with ones assigned sex. Often use mannerisms associated with opposite gender. Transexual people = treatment to make their physical appereance more consistent with their gender identity

Answer 80

-affect ability to function in everyday life -feel strong sense of discomfort with biological sex -onging identification with the opposite sex

Answer 81

-high levels of androgen insenstivity pre-natal Women with Complete Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome (CAIS) have a female external appearance but lack internal female reproductive organs (uterus, fallopian tubes, ovaries). They typically develop breasts and other female characteristics during puberty but do not menstruate and are infertile. CAIS is a genetic condition where the body is unable to respond to androgens, like testosterone -Genetic influences --> Cooldige et al (2002) --> assessed 157 twin pairs. 62% of pairs = prevelance of GD (strongly heritable component). -dysphoria is physiologically determined -influence of prenatal hormones – androgen insensitivity syndrome --> Girls with androgen insensitivity look like normal females and go through puberty and normal breast development, but because their bodies cannot use testosterone, they will have scant or no pubic and armpit hair. Inside her body, the internal sexual organs don't form normally. -Brain sex theory --> Dysphoria is caused by specific brain structures that are incompatible with a persons biological sex. Particular attention has been paid to those areas of the brain that are dimorphic (take different form in males and females) Zouh et al (1995) = studied bed nucleus which is assumed to be fully developed at age 5 and was around 40% larger in males then females. In 6 transgender post-morterms a man who transitioned to female has similar size to females

Answer 82

large Iranian sample, comparing 104 transwomen and 89 transmen against controls Studies suggest that high levels of prenatal testosterone in females and low levels in males might contribute to GID. These findings support the idea that high levels of prenatal T in natal females and low levels in natal males play a part in the aetiology of GID.

Answer 83

-Distorted parental attitudes (Stoller) --> with gender dysphoria biological males they were seen to display overly close relationships with their mothers would display greater female identification and atypical gender identity in the long term -learned via socialisation process -Childhood trauma --> Ovesry and Person (1973) = gender dysphoria is caused by extreme separation anxiety before gender identitity has been established. To become the mother they adopt female identification. -cognitive explanation --> Liben and Bigler (2002) proposed an extension of gender schema theory that emphasises individual differences in gender identity. (dual pathway of gender development). First pathway = gender schema theory. Or interests may become more dominant and thus influence activity e.g boy who likes playing with dolls may get a sex-fixed schema to believing he is a girl for liking these things

Answer 84

-Research support = internal validity -real life applications = increase understanding + help those struggling with gender dysphoria

Answer 85

-contradictory evidence for brain sex theory --> Pol et al 2006 found that transgender hormone therapy does affect BSTc so may suggest these changes are due to hormone treatment rather than gender dysphoria. Chung et al = prenatal influences that affect BSTc are not triggered until adulthood bringing question to childhood diphoric influences. -Twin studies are inconclusive --> not high concordance rates. (39% Heylens et al). = limiting extent to which generalisations can be made. -Biological explanations oversimplify a complex topic --> other factors may be working at a higher psychological level e.g social explanations rather than biological which may be disregarded. Interactionist approach should be done. - The psychoanalytic theory proposed by Ovesey and Person may be considered limited and gender-biased because it only offers an explanation for the development of GID in males, because females (according to this theory) do not feel the same pressure to take on the role of the mother in fear of separation. This idea was supported by Rekers (1986), who suggested that GID in males is more motivated by the lack of a father during the critical period for attachment formation, as opposed to an absent mother. Therefore, the subjective nature of the unconscious concepts proposed by the psychoanalytic theory reduces the scientific credibility of such explanations.

Answer 86

1 mark – over or under-exposure to androgens in the womb (over-exposure for females, under–exposure for males) and consequent masculinisation or feminisation Plus 1 mark – neurobiological abnormality resulting from either genes or pre-natal stress (and links to handedness)

Answer 87

Ao1 = link between sex chromosomes and genetalila, 3 months = produce testosterone, testosterone and oestrogen, atypical chromosome patterns AO3 -> biological determinism -Reimer case study = a male was grown up to be female bc of a circumsisen gone wrong. Still showed a strong male identity nontheless -social influences are also important -

Answer 88

brain structure explanation – differences in hypothalamic area of gender reassignment individuals post-mortem (Garcia-Falgueras and Swaab 2008); sexually dimorphic nucleus smaller (as in female brain) in gender dysphoric males; BSTc comparable size to typical female brain (Zhou 1995)

Answer 89

Furthermore, psychoanalytical theory doesn't explain atypical gender development. Freud's theory centers on male gender development as the norm, viewing female development as a deviation or a failure to fully resolve the Oedipus complex. It posits that females experience "penis envy" and ultimately identify with their mothers, which is seen as a less "complete" or less desirable gender identity. The theory doesn't offer a clear explanation for why a female might develop a gender identity that is not "feminine" according to traditional norms or why she might experience gender dysphoria. Freud’s penis envy as lacking temporal validity highlights its inability to support the prospect of atypical gender development. Modern understandings of gender recognize it as a spectrum, not just a binary. Psychoanalytic theory, with its focus on the Oedipus and Electra complexes, doesn't adequately capture the diversity of gender experiences and identities counter-evidence, eg lack of continuity – counter to biological explanations experience of gender identity disorder for the majority is transient - few years only (Zucker 2008); few hormonal differences between gender identity individuals and other men (Gladue 1985) * counter evidence e.g. psychoanalytic theory does not explain atypical development in females * comparisons between explanations * distinction between cross-gender behaviours and beliefs/behaviours * issue of cause and effect – research cannot show causal influence * broader issues, eg biological versus environmental determinism; reductionism of the biological approach; nature versus nurture * social implications – increasing acceptance of gender roles outside the traditional male/female dichotomy * problems of research – social sensitivity.

Answer 90

Likely differences: chromosomal make up; size of genitalia; limb length; differences in timings of language development, temperament, passivity, shyness etc.

Answer 91

Smith and Lloyd (1978) investigated whether parents reinforce gender-appropriate behaviour but not gender inappropriate behaviour. Their ‘baby x’ experiments involved dressing 4-month old babies in unisex snowsuits and giving them names that were sometimes in line with their true gender and sometimes not. At other times they presented them in clothing that is associated with a particular gender (i.e. blue for a boy, pink for a girl). They videotaped women playing with them. When women played with them, they treated them according to the gender they believed them to be. Seven toys were present in the room – a squeaky hammer and a stuffed rabbit in trousers (male); a doll and a squeaky Bambi (female) , and a squeaky pig, a ball and a rattle (neutral). They found that adults selected gender-appropriate toys for them to play with (e.g. a doll for girls, or a squeaky hammer for boys), depending on the perceived gender of the infant. They also responded more actively when a ‘boy’ showed increased motor activity, and tended to soothe and calm a ‘girl’ when she became more active.

Answer 92

links with cognitive theory, eg gender schema theory suggests that children seek out information that confirms their understanding of their gender so media stereotypes can strengthen gender identity/gender role

Gender Flashcards

(116 cards)