Biopsychology Flashcards
(65 cards)
1
Q
Biopsychologist assumptions
A
-Behaviours are caused by activity in the nervous system
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Q
Nervous system
A
- Network of cells+primary communication system
- 2 main functions: collect,process+respond to info in environment and co-ordinate the working of different organ and cells.
3
Q
Nervous system divisions
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-NS divides into peripheral ns+ central ns
-Central ns divides into brain and spinal cord
-Peripheral ns divides into autonomic+somatic system
autonomic subdivides into sympathetic and parasympathetic system (involuntary)
4
Q
The central nervous system
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- Made up of spinal cord and brain
- Brain sends messages via spinal cord to peripheral nerves to control muscles+internal organs
- Spinal cord=extension of the brain. Connects PNS to brain and sensory neurons are sent to the brain through spinal cord
5
Q
Peripheral Nervous system
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- Job is to connect CNS to the rest of the body+external environment
- Transmits messages through neurons, to and from the CNS.
- PNS divided into Autonomic ns+ somatic ns
6
Q
Somatic NS
A
- Deals with voluntary movement
- Connects CNS to organs, muscles and skin (sensory receptors)
- Receives info with sensory receptors and sends to brain through sensory nerve pathway
- Command come from motor cortex on top of brain
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Q
Autonomic NS
A
- Deals with involuntary movement and vital functions in the body (eg, heart rate, digestion, breathing)
- Transmit info to and from internal organs to sustain essential processes needed for life
- Commands come from brain stem on the bottom of brain
8
Q
Parasympathetic NS
A
- Parasympathetic ns is the relaxed state(no fightorflight)
- Antagonistic (work in opposition) to sympathetic ns
- Generally maintains and conserves body energy and functions (eg: stimulates digestion, constricts pupils,slows heart rate)
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Q
Sympathetic NS
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- Sympathetic ns is stressed state (fight or flight activates)
- Antagonistic to parasympathetic ns
- Adrenaline activates it and maximises+stimulates uses for energy (eg:restricts digestions, pupils dilate,fastens heart rate)
10
Q
Sensory Neurons
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-Bring info about sensory stimuli from sensory receptors
eg:vision,taste and touch
Sends info to the brain to cause reaction
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Q
Motor Neurons
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- Brings instructions for physical operations: e.g. release of hormones from glands, muscle movement
- Transmit impulses from CNS to muscles
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Q
Relay Neurons
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- Connect different parts of the CNS and sends messages between them
- Enables communication between sensory+motor neuron
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Q
Endocrine system
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- Network of glands
- Produce+secrete hormones
- Regulate activity in the body
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Q
Pituitary Gland
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- Master gland
- Responsible for the release of hormones from other endocrine glands
- Directly causes physiological change
15
Q
Adrenal gland
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- Releases adrenaline into the bloodstream
- Adrenal medulla-prepares for fight or flight
- Adrenal cortex-releases fat+glucose for energy
16
Q
Testes- Reproductive organ
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- Produces testosterone
- Involved in male growth+reproduction
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Q
Ovaries-Reproductive organ
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- Produces oestrogen
- Involved in menstruation, female growth and reproduction
18
Q
Hormones
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- Chemical messengers secreted from glands
- Pass through bloodstream to cause regulation in body/behaviour
19
Q
Body reaction to threat
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-Survival mechanism activated in life threatening+non life threatening situations, in high stress situations (LT- facing a robber, NLT- sitting an exam)
20
Q
Amygdala
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- When faced with a threat, amygdala is mobilised
- Hypothalamus starts f/f response and amygdala processes sensory signals with emotions associated with fight or flight then warns hypothalamus to prepare energy
21
Q
Hypothalamus
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- In the brain+acts as a command centre
- Amygdala sends distress signal to brain in threatening situation
- Brain communicates with rest of body through sympathetic ns+releases adrenaline
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Q
Fight or flight response
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- Oxygen intake increases, stored glucose is released for energy and resources are diverted form digestion to preserve energy
- This prepares body to maximise energy for fight or flight
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Q
Endocrine and ANS working together
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- Work in parallel in a stressful event
- ANS changes from parasympathetic to sympathetic
- Pituitary gland releases ACTH, this releases adrenaline into bloodstream
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Q
Dendrites
A
- Receive signals from other neurons or sensory receptor cells
- Relay and motor neuron have dendrites
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Axon
- Carries nerve impulses in form of electrical signal known as action potential towards the end of neuron
- Sensory, relay and motor neuron has this
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Myelin Sheath
- Insulates axon so electrical impulse can travel faster
| - In sensory and motor neuron
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Synaptic transmission
- Process where neuron communicates with target cell across gap
- When action potential reaches end of axon it needs to transfer to another neuron. It has to pass a space called the synaptic gap
- At the end of axon theres synaptic vesicles which contain chemical messengers(neurotransmitters)
- When the electrical impulse reaches vesicles, they release the neurotransmitters inside them
- Neurotransmitter sends signal across gap then bind to receptor sites on post-synaptic cell which then activates
- After receptor activates, they produce excitatory or inhibitory effects on post synaptic cell
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Action of neurotransmitters at synapse
- Excitatory: Make nerve impulse more likely to be triggered. eg: dopamine or serotonin produce state of excitement or activity in NS
- Inhibitory: Make nerve impulse less likely. eg: GABA calms activity in NS+produces states of relaxation
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Presynaptic cell
- Causes transmission of a signal to another neuron
| - Sends signal
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Postsynaptic cell
- Either more or less likely to fire action potential (explosion of electrical activity)
- Receiving end
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Post-synaptic potential
- Excitatory neurotransmitters bind to receptor and causes electrical charge in cell membrane which is an excitatory post synaptic potential(more likely to fire)
- Inhibitory neurotransmitters bind to receptor and causes inhibitory post synaptic potential(less likely to fire)
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Localisation of functions
- Localisation theory suggests particular parts of the brain are specialised to particular functions > suggested by Broca and Wernicke who disagree with earlier psychologists who adopt holism
- Means damage to a particular area of the brain would produce specific issues with those functions
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Holistic theory
-Suggests all parts of the brain were involved in the processing of information, thoughts and actions > not particular areas are localised.
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Motor centre:
- Motor cortex > responsible for generating voluntary motor movements.
- Both hemispheres have a motor cortex and are responsible for the opposite side of the body (right motor cortex impacts left side of body)
- means damage to your left motor cortex impacts movement in right side of body.
- The motor cortex is located on the upper half of the brain towards the front > frontal lobe
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Somatosensory centre:
- Somatosensory cortex > detects sensory info from touch, producing sensation of touch, pressure, pain and temperature. > in both hemispheres
- Damage here means information from senses is not being processed by the brain as it normally would.
- Somatosensory area is located behind the motor cortex (on a diagram there will be a line separating them) > Parietal lobe
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Visual cortex
- Located at the back of the brain with the optic nerve travelling from eyes (front) to the back. > occipital lobe
- In both hemispheres but each hemisphere is responsible for processing images from the opposite visual field (eg: right visual field info goes to left hemisphere).
- Damage here means difficulty processing visual info.
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Auditory centre
- Auditory area is in the temporal lobe of both hemispheres near the actual ears (middle of brain)
- Recognises sounds and analyses speech based info
- Damage here means difficulty processing auditory info.
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Broca's area
- Language production centre >
- Found by Broca who studied people who can understand language but not produce it (speaking or writing) > in post-mortem he found lesions in left frontal hemisphere > this showed him that this area is critical for speech production (supports localisation)
- Damage to this area causes Broca's aphasia > this is where language production is slow and takes a lot of effort because speech production is damaged.
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Wernicke's area
- Language understanding centre
- Wernicke studied patients who could speak (no damage to Brocas's area) but did not understand language. > could talk but these were not sentences which made sense.
- They had damage to the posterior portion of left temporal lobe.
- This area of the brain is therefore linked to recognising sounds as language and associating that language with meaning.
- Damage to this area causes Wernicke's aphasia > patients with this produce language easily but it is meaningless.
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Localisation of function evaluation
- Research support: Petersen et al did brain scans on people where he found Wernicke's area was active during the listening task as it is involved in understanding language + Broca's area was active during reading task as it is involved in producing lan
- Case study support: Phineas Gage sufferred brain damage, an iron pole went through his brain damging his left frontal lobe. > personality changed from calm to quick tempered. > frontal lobe responsible for regulating mood
- Opposing evidence: Lashley removed areas of cortex of rats who were learning a maze. No area was proven to be more important than another in rats ability to learn the maze, process of learning needed all parts of brain > learning is too complex to be localised + holistic theory supported
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Hemispheric lateralisation
- Means both hemispheres of the brain are not wholly alike, brain functions are lateralised (brain functions are specialised to different sides of the brain)
- EG: research suggests left hemisphere is dominant for language + speech (Broca's+Wernicke's language centre are in the left hemisphere)
- Two hemispheres are connected by the corpus callosum (bundle of nerve fibres)
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Split brain patients
- People with severe epilepsy used to be treated by cutting the corpus callosum partly or entirely > resulted in patients having two separate hemispheres that could no longer communicate through the corpus callosum.
- Sperry studies the effect of this to see if the two hemispheres were specialised so they operated independently of each other.
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Sperry split brain research
- Split brain patients would have an image projected to their right visual field (processed by left hemisphere) then a different image projected to left visual field.
- Presenting the image to one hemisphere to a split brain patient meant info would only be perceived by one hemisphere + differently based on the hemispheres function.
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Example of procedure for split brain research:
1a. Describing what you see: if a picture of an object is shown to the right visual field, the patient should be able to verbally describe and explain what they saw because it is processed by the left hemisphere which has the Brocas + Wernicke area (language area)
1b. Describing what you see: if a picture of an object is shown to the left visual field, the patient wont be able to describe it but can draw it (lack of language area)
2. matching faces: when matching a face from a series of faces presented, the left visual field will be more accurate in this because the right hemisphere is lateralised in facial recognition and visual spatial info which the left hemisphere isnt.
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Evaluation of hemispheric lateralisation and split brain research:
- Sperry's research supports hemispheric lateralisation as it is evidence of it thus increasing its internal validity.
- The patients who the split brain research was done on had severe epilepsy and was only a sample of 11 (idiographic) > lacks population validity + internal validity (epilepsy may attribute different behaviour)
- Severance of corpus callosum may have differed > lack of standardisation means reactions may not have been the same + lowers overall internal validity.
- Case of Kim Peek who was born without a corpus callosum showed that he was able to develop language areas in both hemisphere > contradicts split brain research > but this is idiographic + lack pop validity
- Alternative explanation of plasticity may be more credible.
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Plasticity
- Brains ability to change and adapt (function + physical structure) due to experience and learning.
- Infants brain's experience rapid growth in no. of synaptic connections it has (peak at 15,000) by 3 years old > twice as many as there are in adults
- Plasticity is better in infants than adults
- Connections that are rarely used are deleted through 'cognitive pruning'. (example of plasticity)
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Functional recovery
- Form of plasticity
- Following injury, unaffected areas of the brain are able to adapt and compensate for those areas > example of neural plasticity.
- Axonal sprouting > growth of new nerve endings which connect to undamaged nerve endings form new neural pathways. (examples of FR)
- Another form of FR is recruitment of similar areas on the opposite area to do those tasks. EG > if broca's area was damaged, the equivalent on the right hemisphere would take over this function > called neural reorganisation
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Research into plasticity: Maguire et Al
- Studied brains of london taxi drivers + compared to control group. > this is because taxi drivers taxi drivers have to remember the map of land (greater spatial skill)
- Found significantly more volume of grey matter in the posterior hippocampus in drivers than in the control group. > this part of the brain is associated with development of spatial + navigational skills.
- Difference shows support for plasticity.
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Research into functional recovery: Tajiri et al
- Found evidence for role of stem cells producing FR.
- Randomly assigned rats with traumatic brain injury to one of 2 groups > one group received transplants of stem cells intro region brain affected by the injury. Control group received a solution containing no stem cells.
- 3 months after the injury, the brains of stem cell rats showed development of neuron like cells in the area of injury while the control group did not.
- Supports FR as stem cells produced new cells in the damaged area of the brain.
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Evaluation of plasticity + functional recovery
- Maguire's study supports plasticity > used scientific and objective measurements as the brain was directly studied + control group shows difference. BUT, we cant be sure that the difference is due to knowledge of taxi drivers as they weren't tested before + beta bias and androcentric sample as only men were used.
- Tajiri study supports FR > objective method + control group allows comparison BUT animal extrapolation is an issue, cant generalise to humans where the case may differ. > cost benefit analysis shows this was necessary though + positive to add to knowledge.
- Hubel + Weisel > sewed one eye of a kitten shut to see effects of FR + plasticity > info was still processed visually by the open eye > supports FR as induced damage caused adaptation > animal extrapolation.
- Bezzola > found that golfers who had training had less motor cortex activity from FMRI (golf brains were better) unlike control group who had no training. Shows from experience of 40hrs of training, the brain was more neurally efficient. BUT, only focuses on ability of golf + may not generalise, sample was only 40-60 yr olds > lacks population validity.
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Ways of studying the brain
- FMRI > Functional magnetic resonance imaging
- EEG > Electroencephalogram
- ERP > Event related potential
- Post mortem examination
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FMRI
- Work by detecting changes in blood oxygenation + blood flow which happens due to neural activity in specific parts of the brain.
- When one area of the brain is more active, it consumes more oxygen > to meet this increased demand, blood flow is directed to the active area.
- FMRI produces 3 dimensional images showing which parts of the brain are involved in particular mental processes > important in understanding localisation of function
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FMRI: strengths + limitations
Strengths:
- Doesn't rely on using radiation unlike PET. If administered correctly, it is virtually risk free, non-invasive + straightforward to use.
- Produces images with high spatial resolution > shows detail by the millimetre + clearly how the brains localised
Limitations:
- Expensive compared to other neuroimaging techniques + can only get a clear image if the person is very still.
- Poor temporal resolution as there is a 5 second time lag behind the image on screen + initial firing of neuronal activity > makes it hard to tell what kind of brain activity is being represented on screen.
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EEG: strengths + limitations
Strengths:
- EEG's are very helpful in diagnosis of conditions like epilepsy which show random bursts of activity in the brain which can easily be detected on screen
- Has also contributed to understanding of ultradian rhythms (stages in sleep).
- High temporal resolution > accurately detects brain activity in a millisecond.
Limitations:
-EEG isn't useful in pinpointing the exact source of neural activity because of the general nature of the info received (thousands of neurons). This doesn't allow researchers to distinguish between activities originating in different locations near each other.
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ERP: strengths + limitations
Strengths: (limitations of EEG are partly addressed)
- Bring specificity to the measurement of neural processes (unlike EEGs)
- High temporal resolution (unlike fmri) > led to widespread use in measuring cognitive functions.
- Researchers have been able to identify different types of ERP + precise role in cognitive functioning
Limitations:
- Lack of standardisation in ERP methodology between different research > makes it hard to confirm findings
- To establish pure data in ERP, background noise + extraneous material must be eliminated > is hard to achieve + not always able to achieve.
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Post-mortem examination: strengths + limitations
Strengths:
- Vital in providing a foundation for early understanding of key neural processes (brain). > Broca + Wernicke relied on this method to establish the link between language, brain and behaviour (before neuroimaging existed)
- Post mortem studies improved medical knowledge + generate hypotheses for further investigation
Limitations:
- Causation > observed damage may not be due to deficits under review but due to other trauma or decay from death.
- Raises ethical concerns for consent from patient before death > if they had problems with their brain they may have given consent without being fully aware of what they were consenting to.
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EEG
- Measures electrical activity within brain via electrodes which are fixed to the persons scalp using skull cap
- Scan recording shows brainwave patterns generated from action of millions of neurons > provides overall account of brain activity.
- Clinicians use this as a diagnostic tool > unusual rhythmic patterns of activity may show neural abnormality like schizophrenia.
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ERP
- Using statistical averaging technique, extraneous brain activity from original EEG recording are filtered out so that only the presentation or performance of a specific stimulus remain > these are ERP.
- ERP's are types of brainwaves triggered by particular events
- Research shows many types of ERP + are linked to cognitive processes.
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Post-mortem examination
- Analysis of a persons brain after their death
- In psychological research, those likely to have post mortem are those with rare disorders and have unusual deficits in mental processing or behaviour.
- Areas of damage are examined after death to establish the affliction the person suffered.
- Can also compare to a neurotypical brain to see extent of difference.
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Biological rhythms
- Are natural cycle of change in our body's chemicals or function > like an internal master “clock” that coordinates the other clocks in your body
- Circadian, infradian and ultradian are types of this.
- Can be impacted by endogenous pacemakers and exogenous zeitgebers.
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Circadian rhythm
- Circadian rhythms last 24hrs + reset by levels of light
- Example of circadian rhythm is the sleep wake cycle
- Light is an exogenous zeitgeber + regulates when we wake + sleep (sleep + drowsy when its dark, active + awake when it is light)
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Study into circadian rhythm: sleep wake cycle
- Siffre spent many periods underground in which he investigated his own biological rhythm. He was isolated from natural light but had access to food. > His free running biological rhythm was at 25hrs. + continued to sleep and wake on regular schedule
- Aschoff + Wever asked group of ppt to stay in a bunker for 4 weeks isolated from natural light > most ppt had an extended circadian sleep/wake cycle of 24-25hrs.
- Suggests our natural circadian sleep wake cycle is longer than 24hrs but is entrained by exogenous zeitgebers to fit the 24hr day (light)
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Evaluation of circadian rhythms
- Real-life app: psychologists are aware of the consequences of disruption to the cycle. EG: shift workers are at risk as around 6am, there is a period of reduced concentration > makes people who work during the time we should be asleep at more risk of accidents > economic implication > accidents = no workers = economy pays sick pay but no revenue.
- Drug treatment: real life app as research shows when it is most suitable to take particular treatments in the day for maximum effect in terms of how it is absorbed + distributed > development of guidelines in medication like in anti epileptic drugs.
- Studies supporting circadian rhythm uses small groups of ppt or individuals > lack of population validity+ cannot generalise. EG: Siffre was 60 + has a slower internal body clock than others > his findings are personal to him + cant generalise, other factors impact circadian rhythm
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Infradian rhythm
- Lasts longer than a day > EG: week/month like the menstrual cycle which takes around 28 days.
- Menstrual cycle is governed by monthly changes in hormone levels which regulate ovulation > starts on the first day of the period until the day before her next period.
- Each cycle, oestrogen increases + causes ovary to release egg > after progesterone helps the womb lining grow thicker > prepares body for pregnancy > if pregnancy doesnt occur egg is absorbed by womb lining
65
Study into infradian rhythm:
- Menstrual cycle is an endogenous pacemaker but can be impacted by exogenous zeitgebers like pheromone secretion from other women.
- Mclintock + Stern got a control group who wore alcohol soaked pad in their armpit > pheromones were then rubbed on the top lip of experimental group + menstral cycle was monitored.
- 69% of ppt in experimental groups showed changes in own menstrual cycle timings which brought them closer to the timings of ppt in control group who they got th pheromones from.
- Supports role of exogenous zeitgebers in human infradian rhythm
