Issues + Debates Flashcards
(36 cards)
1
Q
Universality + Bias (applies to gender and culture)
A
Universality: conclusions can be drawn to everyone, everywhere regardless of gender+culture
Bias: tendency to treat someone differently than others due to things like gender or culture
2
Q
Gender bias
A
Differential treatment or males and females based on stereotypes and not real assumptions
3
Q
2 types of gender bias
A
Alpha bias: Exaggerates the difference between men and woman. eg: psychodynamic app says girls go through elektra while boys go through oedipus
Beta bias: Minimises differences between men and women. eg: Milgram studied men in his study of obedience but generalised to women too even though he didn’t study them
4
Q
Androcentrism + Gynocentrism
A
Androcentrism: male centred research, research about men
Gynocentrism: female centred research, research about women
5
Q
Evaluation of Gender bias
A
- Implications: G biased research may make misleading assumptions about females, reinforce stereotypes + discriminatory practice. May impact women in real life+ their prospects as scientific justification is given. eg Freud saw women as femininity as a failed form of masculinity so men are always seen as superior
- Sexism in research: Most research is carried out by men+ hold senior positions, lack of women means female concerns arent shown in psych. Female ppt are in subordinate positions to male psychologists
- Reflexivity: Positive, takes into account where bias is happening, reflection of research+ bias.eg Dambrin+ Lambert did a study on lack of women in senior positions in accounting firms+ acknowledged how their gender may impact results
- Essentialism: Essentialist view where gender diff is fixed+ inevitable. eg Walkerdine found research saying women who attend uni wont be able to birth later- these are politically motivated to prevent rise of women. Creates a double standard for women for the same behaviour men do.
6
Q
2 types of culture bias
A
Alpha bias: differences in cultures are exaggerated
Betas bias: differences in culture are minimised
7
Q
Ethnocentrism
A
- Belief that ones own culture is superior + only see the world from their own cultures perspective. eg: Ainsworth tried to generalise her western findings on other cultures
Milgram tried to generalised his Western findings on other cultures
8
Q
Eurocentrism
A
- Seeing the world from only European and American cultures perspective
9
Q
Emic and imposed etic
A
- Emic studies one single culture to see impacts on that one culture
- Imposed etic studies one culture and tries to generalise to other cultures. This imposes and forces its results onto other cultures even though they differ. eg Ainsworth’s attachment study
10
Q
Cultural relativism:
A
- Idea that norms and behaviour can only be understood if it’s in the specific cultural context that is being researched. eg: if Milgram wanted to understand obedience in African culture, he should go to that culture to understand it instead of studying outside of it.
11
Q
Evaluation of cultural bias
A
- Reflexivity: 66% of psychological studies were American, 32% European and 2% from the rest of the world. Shows other cultures are being unrepresented. Realisation means we can move towards cultural relativism.
- Indigenous psychologies: theories drawing on specific cultural experience. Eg Afrocentrism, ppl with African roots should have their background acknowledge. But this might be biased too, some may not be in touch with their culture + have become westernised
- Operationalisation of variables: different cultures may see certain behaviours at different+respond differently. eg Thailand sees pointing as rude whereas Western countries dont, China sees invading space normal but we see it as confrontational and aggressive. This means if variables are brief it may become an imposed etic
- Contemporary psychologists: international psychology conferences increase exchange of ideas across countrie. Positive, means more appreciation for cultural differences+ move towards cultural relativism.
12
Q
Freewill
A
-Suggests humans are self-determining + can make their own choices about things. Acknowledges that internal+ external factors may have impact but the person has full control.
This advocated by the Humanist app
13
Q
Determinism
A
-Suggests behaviour is determined by other forces+not freewill but there are different types
14
Q
Soft determinism and hard determinism
A
- Soft determinism is shown by SLT and Cognitive app. SLT says that reinforcement determines behaviour to an extent but there are also mediational processes.
- Hard determinism: forces outside our control determine behaviour, no freewill, eg biological app
15
Q
Types of Determinism
A
- Biological det: all human behaviour is innate+determined by biological influences.(not just genes, hormones and neurochemicals too) eg: biological explanations of OCD
- Environmental det: behaviour is caused by experiences+classical and operant conditioning. eg: behaviourist expl of phobias
- Psychic det: behaviour is due to childhoode experiences+innate drives. eg Freuds stages of development
16
Q
Scientific emphasis on causal explanations
A
- Basic principle of science is that every event has a cause(determinist)
- Experimental psych is determinist as lab experiments seek to find cause and effect rel to control+predict behaviour
- Freewill is inconsistent with these principles as it suggests behaviour isnt caused by a particular factor but based on the individual exercising freewill
17
Q
Evaluation of freewill vs determinism
A
- Det positive: Det is consistent with aims of science.Means psychology is considered at the same level as other sciences. Deterministic research has led to treatment such as for OCD, phobias, depression
- Det negative: Det ideas contradicts legal system. Legally, offenders are seen as accountable for their crimes+blame isnt put elsewhere
- Freewil positive: research shows ppl with high internal locus of control have better mental health, those who believe in fatalism are likely to have depression. Thinking we have freewill is positive for the mind
- Freewill negative: Research shows even our most basic experiences are determined. Study on ppt choosing to press a button: found activity in the brain 10 secs before the ppt were consciously aware. Most simple choices are controlled
18
Q
Nature-Nurture debate
A
- Nature: behaviour is a product of innate biological factors
- Nurture: behaviour is a product of environmental influences
- Nature-Nurture Interaction: Both nature and nurture work together to shape human behaviour
19
Q
Nature+examples
A
-Heredity: Genetic inheritance
-Bowlby: children are born with innate tendency to attach to help survival (nativist_
-Schizophrenia is believed to have genetic component
Concordance rates in schizophrenia: 40% in MZ twins+ 7% in DZ twins shows biology impacts it
20
Q
Nurture+examples
A
- Behaviourists explain attachment through CC due to food
- Behaviourists explain phobias through CC (empiricist)
21
Q
Nature-Nurture interactionism examples
A
-Diathesis stress model of mental illness: suggests psychopathology is caused by biological vulnerability which is only expressed when exposed to environmental trigger
eg schizophrenia is believed to have a genetic basis due to concordance rates at 40% in MZ twins, as there is not 100% conc, there has to be an environmental stressor which causes schizophrenia
22
Q
Approaches in N/N
A
- Nature: Biological, Psychodynamic
- Nurture: Behaviourist, Humanistic
23
Q
Evaluation of Nature vs Nurture
A
- Extreme beliefs=controversy: Nature stances lead to impacts on socially sensitive research like race and IQ. EG, in Nazi Germany, eugenics+selective breeding was used to make Aryan race. Nurture means systems can manipulate people through environment eg Nazi education
- Shared+unshared environments: siblings have the same environment but react differently sometimes. Plomin+Dunn say they experience life differently so react like that. EG: in parents divorce, age/temperament impacts reaction to this. Explains why conc rates arent 100%. Nature+nurture cant be seperated
- Constructivism: Ppl create their own nurture by selecting environments which suit their nature. EG, a naturally aggressive child will prefer being friends with other aggressive kids. Impacts development due to environment reinforcing nature. Plomin calls this ‘niche-picking’ and ‘niche-building’
24
Q
Cultural bias
A
Tendency to judge people based on your own cultural assumptions
25
Levels of explanations
- There are different levels to the way we see the same phenomena, eg OCD
- The levels are: socio-cultural (social situation impacts), psychological (process of thoughts), physical (process of movements), physiological and neurochemical.
26
Holism vs Reductionism
- Holism takes into account the whole situation considering all elements. An example of a holistic app is humanism which looks at all factors involved when assessing situations. Uses qualitative methods to investigate all aspects of a person
- Reductionism reduces the cause or explanation of a complex issue down to one sole factor
27
Types of reductionism
- Biological reductionism: involves reducing behaviour down to a physical level. EG: biological exp of OCD is seen to be due to high dopamine and low serotonin
- Environmental reductionism: involves reducing behaviour down to stimulus and response reactions through learning (advocated by behaviourists). EG: behaviourist explanation of phobias suggest we acquire phobias through classical conditioning then maintain with operant conditioning.
28
Evaluation of holism vs reductionism
- Reductionism is positive in psych because it provides scientific credibility as it uses objective methods to create conclusions to complex behaviours
- Bio red is helpful in real life. SSRI's have been made to treat OCD. If reductionism wasn't applied we wouldn't have psychological treatments.
- Reductionism ignores impact of other factors which Holism does. Holism is better because social aspects of behaviour cant always be understood by biology. EG, conformity to social roles in Zimbardos stanford prison study only occurred due to interaction between ppt. More factors create more answers but cant be tested
29
Idiographic approach
- Idiographic app includes focus on the individual and emphasis on unique personal experience.
- Methods of investigation: Case studies, unstructured interviews, thematic analysis. (associated with methods that product qualitative data)
- This app doesnt seek to formulate general laws or generalise results.
- Supported by Humanism.
30
Nomothetic approach
- Concerned with establishing general laws, based on the study of large groups of people
- Methods of investigation: Experiments, correlational research.
- Closely associated with methods which are reliable and scientific, involves studying large groups to establish similarities between people.
- Supported by biological approach
31
Both idiographic and nomothetic
- supported by Cognitive approach
- Cognitive app attempts to establish general laws (eg multi-store model) while using case studies (eg HM)
- Use case studies to come to a more generalisable finding.
32
Evaluation of idiographic vs nomothetic
- Idiographic app is positively complimented with nomothetic app. EG, KF was a case study about impact of amnesia into memory. This case study allowed more understanding+hypothesis for a general law, working memory model. Case studies contribute overall to understanding
- But idiographic app is of restricted nature. EG, Freud tried to establish a general law with research from case studies but meaningful generalisations cant be made. It is also unscientific and open to bias due to interpretation
- Nomothetic research adds scientific credibility to psych as it uses methods associated with natural sciences.This enables norms to be drawn in behaviour amongst everyone enabling greater scientific credibility
33
Ethical implications
- Considers impacts that psychological research has on the rights of other people in a wider context, not just ppt taking part. (eg: discrimination)
- Examples of research with ethical implications: Bowlbys attachment theory; suggests kids need their mothers to attach well+ suggests women should stay home, reinforcing traditional role of women + discrimination in employment
34
Social Sensitive Research (SSR)
-Sieber and Stanley describe socially sensitive research as research with potential to cause ethical implications for not just the participants but the group they represent
-Concerns: some studies may give scientific justification to prejudice and discriminate, so it can only be seen by those who need to.
Uses/Public policy: What is the purpose of the study? to discriminate others or positively impact society. Findings can be used to shape public policy
-Validity of research: Findings have to be objective+verified by peer review as old studies have been deemed as fraudulent.
35
Theories causing ethical implications:
- Cyril Burt: Evidence showing intelligence was inherited. This led to the 11+ exam being invented in which kids would be separated into schools depending on the pass rate. Those who passed led prosperous lives with good jobs others didnt. (shows ethical imp on society) Burts, evidence was deemed fraudulent as he made them up
- Bowlby theory of attachment+monotropy: Suggests kids need to attach with mothers+stay with them in the critical period or else kids suffered. Enabled parents to accompany kids when in hospital but also discouraged working women+made them want to stay home
36
Evaluation of ethical implications:
- Not all socially sensitive is controversial, some are desirable and beneficial to society. EG, research into child EWT helped improve their use in court. Potential implication for kids who arent seen as credible and dismissed. Cog interviews mean careful investigation can make kids credible EWT, without this valuable info could be missed.
- Cant ignore SSR's into controversial things like race or gender as it allows society to advance. EG, Bowlby's theory of attachment was criticised by feminists but enabled kids to be with parents in hospital. SSR should be carried out following guidelines by Sieber+Stanley.
- Cost and benefits: cost benefit analysis is needed before conducting SSR to see if it is worth doing + has more benefits than costs. An issue is that it is difficult to anticipate the costs as public reaction can be different. Cost benefit analysis may be subjective due to this + real impact wont be known till made public as findings were not interpreted in a way it was not intended. eg: Cyril Burt may not have intended on determining lives for kids using 11+ but it happened.
