Memory

Question 1

Multi Store Model, Atkinson + Shiffrin

Answer 1

• Shows flow of info to memory system

- Believe there are 3 types of unitary stores; sensory, stm + ltm.

Question 2

Sensory memory

Answer 2

• Receives info using sense organs
• duration- 1/4-1/2 second
• capacity- all sensory experience
• encoding-sense specific
  If attention is given, info transfers to STM

Question 3

Iconic, echoic and haptic sense

Answer 3

Iconic is what we see
Echoic is what is heard
Haptic is what we touch

Question 4

STM

Answer 4

Holds memory being consciously thought of. If you do maintenance rehearsal (rehearsing w/out though or connection between ideas), memory transfers to LTM. If maintenance rehearsal doesn’t occur, info will be forgotten through displacement or decay.
Capacity- 7/+-2 millers magic no.
Duration-18-30secs
Coding- acoustic

Question 5

LTM

Answer 5

Provides lasting retention of info
capacity and duration are unlimited
encoding is often semantic but can be acoustic or visual

Question 6

Encoding

Answer 6

Format in which memory is stored
Semantic-meaning
Acoustic-sounds
Visual-pictures

Question 7

Types of LTM

Answer 7

Episodic memory-Involves memory of events we experience eg your birthday
Procedural memory-Involves memory of how to do things eg ride a bike
Semantic memory-knowledge of the world, general knowledge eg meanings of words

Question 8

MSM Evaluation

Answer 8

• SUPPORTING EVIDENCE: Baddeley found that we mix up words that SOUND similar when using STM but mix words that have similar MEANINGS when using LTM, shows separate stores + different coding
• LTM IS OVERSIMPLIFIED- LTM is more complex, 3 types, HM shows this
• STM IS OVERSIMPLIFIED- KF and his amnesia suggests there is separate STM stores+ not unitary
• RESEARCH SUPPORTING USES ARTIFICIAL MATERIALS- Lacks mundane realism
• Rehearsal is ineffective:research has shown in order to transfer info form stm to ltm, elaborative rehearsal is required where you associate the info with info in ltm to give it a deeper meaning rather than simply rehearse it

Question 9

Types of LTM Evaluation

Answer 9

• CLINICAL EVI- HM+KF had amnesia, episodic memory damaged but other 2 remain fine, couldnt remember touching a dog but knew the concept of a dog
• NEUROIMAGING EV-Tulving et Al shows each LTM is on different parts of the brain, physical difference. Ppt had to perform memory tasks while under PET scan
• Most studies supporting are case studies unique to them+cant be generalised so research is required
• Real life app suggested by Belleville et al, older ppl can improve episodic memory with treatment

Question 10

Working Memory Model

Answer 10

Provides depth of STM which the MSM lacks

Question 11

Central Executive

Answer 11

Supervisory store which delegates tasks and attention to certain slave systems
Coding- visual+ acoustic
Capacity- limited

Question 12

Phonological Loop

Answer 12

Auditory info
Phonological store- holds words you hear
Articulatory process-Maintains speech from phonological store with repetition to prevent decay, maintenance rehearsal (lasts 2secs)
Capacity- limited
Coding- Acoustic

Question 13

Visual Spatial sketchpad

Answer 13

-Stores visual + spatial info
Visual info- physical appearance of things
Spatial info- physical relationship between things
Visual cache-stores visual data
Inner scribe- arrangement of items
Capacity-3/4 items
Coding- Visual

Question 14

Episodic Buffer

Answer 14

Temporary store which integrates visual spatial and acoustic, holds more info for CE bc CE is limited
Cap- 4 chunks
Coding- visual+ acoustic

Question 15

Exp of forgetting: Proactive and Retroactive interference

Answer 15

PI when older memory distorts newer memory
RI when newer memories distort older memories
Mcdonald and McGeoch found interference is worse when memories are similar

Question 16

Evaluation of PI and RI(M+M)

Answer 16

• M+M study was lab based so lacks ecological validity and cant generalise to real life because in reality, interference happens over a long period of time.
• Supporting real life studies: B+H showed that rugby players couldnt remember the teams they played in a month if they had played several other teams since then, forgetting isnt due to time but interference
• Materials used in study were artificial and didnt mean anything to ppt so may have affected results with mundane realism

Question 17

Mcdonald and Mcgeochs study of interference

Answer 17

procedure- studied retroactive interference by changing the similarity two sets of lists
- participants learned a list of 10 words then learned another list of words depending on their group
- there where 6 groups therefore 6 conditions changing based on the 2nd set of word who learned different words.
-Group 1 Synonyms (same meaning)
-Group 2 (opposite meaning)
-Group 3 unrelated words
-Group 4 nonsense syllables (XYN)
-Group 5 3 digit number
-Group 6 rested (no new list)
Findings:Recollection was poor if 2 sets of words were similar. Interference was most likely to occur when material being remembered was similar.

Question 18

Retrieval Failure

Answer 18

When memories are present in the LTM but cant be retrieved as suitable cues arent present

Question 19

Context dependant retrieval failure

State dependant retrieval failure

Answer 19

• Context dependant refers to cues from the environment memories were encoded in and retrieved
• State dependant refers to the physical or psychological state of the person when information is encoded and retrieved.

Question 20

Baddeley + Goedden context dep

Answer 20

Procedure: 18 divers took part in a repeated measures design consisting of 4 conditions – learning words on land and recalling on land, learning words on land, recalling under water; learning under water recalling under water, learning under water, recall on land.

They had to learn 38 unrelated words which they heard twice during the learning stage.

Findings: Around 50% better recall when learning and recall are the same, 40% more words were forgotten when the condition changed.

Conclusion: environmental cues do improve recall and supports cue dependent theory

Question 21

Evaluation of B+G context dep

Answer 21

• Lacks mundane realism, only generalisable to divers, limited app bc nobody learns words underwater
• Artificial stimuli:meaningless words+may have impacted recall
• Applied to real life, police can take witness to original place for better EWT
• Supporting evidence carter+cassaday

Question 22

Carter+Cassaday State dep

Answer 22

-Gave anti-histamine drugs or a placebo to participants
anti-h causes drowsiness
-4 conditions
-Had to recall a set of words
Found higher recall when state was the same as cues were present and lower recall when states differed

AO3 IS SAME AS B+G

Question 23

Encoding specificity principle

Answer 23

If the same cues at encoding are present at retrieval, memory is better
Endel Tulving found this

Question 24

Factors affecting EWT

Answer 24

Leading questions
Anxiety
Post event discussion

Question 25

Loftus+Palmer EWT study | Leading questions

Answer 25

-45 students, ppts were shown short vid clips -All participants were asked "how fast were the cars going when they ____ into eachother", diff verbs were put in to see impact of leading questions (smashed bumped collided hit contacted) -Findings: participants gave higher estimates when verbs were more aggressive -L+P said there may have been response bias (the verb influenced response) or memory is altered (the verb made them see it differently) METHOD 2- 150 students shown clips and asked how fast car was going when they hit/smashed eachother, then asked if there was broken glass, there was none. More aggressive the verb the more said there was broken glass

Question 26

L+P EWT evaluation

Answer 26

- Can be applied to real life as police know to avoid leading questions - Lacks mundane realise+ecological validity as they watched clips and didnt experience it, effects such as anxiety werent present. unrealistic representation. - Only students were used so samples too small + cant be generalised to wider pop, doesnt represent older age groups who may be less accurate in memory

Question 27

Gabbert et Al post event discussion study

Answer 27

- Participants mixture of old and young, put into pairs - Watched same video clip from different perspective then had a post event discussion, after they recalled separately what happened - Findings show 71% recalled aspects they didnt see - Conc- participants go along with others for social approval, this is memory conformity

Question 28

Gabbert evaluation (similiar to L+P)

Answer 28

- Lacks mundane realism as vids were used - Demand characteristics may have been present - Real life app, police know not to use post event discussion - Used old+young ppl+good population validity

Question 29

Anxiety negative eff Johnson+Scott

Answer 29

- Decepted pp to believe theyre doing a lab study - They heard an argument in the room nextdoor (low anxiety cond) where a man walked through with a greasy pen - In the high anxiety cond, pp heard breaking glass then a man walked out with a paper knife with blood - Pp could identify man from 50 photos more in low an cond, 49% than in high, 33% due to weapon focus effect which reduces accuracy of ewt

Question 30

Anxiety negative eff j+s evaluation

Answer 30

- Deception+anxiety created so its unethical, psych harm - May test surprise rather than anxiety and so the reason why the participants focus on the weapon may be because they are surprised rather than scared. - Doesnt reflect real life as researchers usually interview real-life eyewitnesses sometime after the event so extraneous variables which may impact anxiety cant be controlled, impact of this isnt shown in the study - Yuille + Cutshall offer an alternative explanation

Question 31

Yuille+Cutshall anxiety positive eff

Answer 31

13 participants from real life witnesses of gun shooting -Interviews 4-5 months after the event. The more detail the more accurate it was considered. They also had to rate stress level on 7 point scale Findings- those with higher stress levels gave more details. This is due to fight or flight which makes one more aware and alert so anxiety is good in ewt

Question 32

Y+C anxiety positive evaluation

Answer 32

- Natural exp so high validity - Lack of control of extraneous variables as other things may have impacted recall - More detail does not mean that its correct thus there is room for misinterpretation - Contrasting evidence, johnson + scott

Question 33

Pickel

Answer 33

Pickel argues weapon focus isnt relevant and people focus more on things in unusual and unnatural settings as theyre surprised - in a hair salon he placed a chicken and scissors - People paid more attention to the chicken as it was unusual to be there and not to the scissors even though its more threatening

Question 34

Ronald Fisher+ Edward Geissman

Answer 34

Argued EWT could be improved if police used better techniques, they developed cognitive interview

Question 35

Cognitive Interview

Answer 35

1. Report everything regardless of whether you feel it is pointless 2. Reinstate context for cues 3. Reverse order of events to prevent dishonesty and expectation of events 4. Recall from the perspective of someone else

Question 36

Enhanced CI

Answer 36

Fisher et Al said its important for police to know when to make and break eye contact, asking open question and minimising distractions

Question 37

Evaluation of CI

Answer 37

- The CI is time-consuming and also requires special training but many forces have not been able to provide more than a few hours worth. This means it is unlikely that the proper version of the CI is actually used, which may explain why police have not been that impressed by it - Research shows that some parts of the CI are more useful than others.1+2 produce best info, police should be able to use it more its less to train for. More credible - Kohnken found in meta analysis enhanced CI consistently provided more correct information than the standard interview used in police. Real life app as it can help catch criminals more often+quicker

Question 38

Evaluation of WMM

Answer 38

- Dual task by B+H showed ppt had difficulty learning 2 visual tasks at the same time than 1 visual+1 verbal. Using separate parts of the stm allows adequate memory because when two things need one component, they have to compete for the same slave system > shows there are separate slave systems hence why recall is better when doing simultaneous tasks from differing systems - KFs case study of brain damage showed his visual spatial sketchpad was fine because he could recall words read but not sounds (process visual in stm but not acoustic). Shows distinct stores but this may not generalise to others who dont have brain damage which is usually caused by traumatic experiences. - CE has no depth but has most control, no evidence showing function makes it pointless > requires more explanation as the WMM remains unexplained so is a partial theory.

Question 39

Coding research

Answer 39

- Baddeley gave ppts different sets of words, some that sound acoustically similiar(eg cat can)+ semantically similar things(eg big, large) - When recalling immediately, STM recall, 1st group did worse- stm= acoustic coding - Recall after 20mins, LTM recall, 2nd group did worse-LTM+semantic coding

Question 40

Capacity research

Answer 40

- How much info can be held in STM - Jacobs technique to measure digit span, list of numbers to recall in right order, if right go up till they get it wrong=their digit span. Average mean digit span is 9.3-7.3 - Miller says capacity of stm is 7/+-2 items bc in life lots of things come in 7s like 7 deadly sin, memory is better when using chunking

Question 41

Research on duration of STM

Answer 41

-Peterson+Peterson did a study on 24 students in 8 trials. Students were given consonant syllables to remember and also a 3 digit no. to count backwards from until told to stop (prevented mental rehearsal) -Told to stop at diff times in each trial, 3,6,9,12,15,18 secs-retention interval Findings: Recalled more within 3-9secs, stm has a short duration

Question 42

Research on duration of LTM

Answer 42

- Bahrick et al studied 392 ppt aged between 17-74, their high school yearbooks were obtained - Did a photo recognition test of 50 photos only some being from the yearbook+ free recall where they said all names of their graduating class - Ppt tested 15yrs after grad had 90% accuracy in photo recognition and 60% in free recall+ 48yrs after had 70% accuracy in photo recognition and 30% in free recall - LTM lasts a long period of time

Question 43

Evaluation of coding research

Answer 43

-Limited app: Stimuli used was artificial and so ppt may not have given full efforts+ may not generalise to other memory tasks which may be more meaningful. The words were random and not meaningful to ppts eg, meaningful memory task might need semantic coding even in stm

Question 44

Evaluation on research in capacity

Answer 44

- Jacobs study may lack validity as it was conducted early on in time of psychology so it is likely that ppts may have been distracted and performed less well- extraneous variable - Miller overestimated capacity of stm, Cowan found from other research the average item was 4 not 7, Millers 7-2 is more accurate

Question 45

Evaluation of duration of STM

Answer 45

- Used artificial stimulus: Gave meaningless syllables to remember, trying to memorise this doesn't reflect real life situations where we make effort to remember meaningful things- Lacks validity - Lacks pop validity only used students

Question 46

Evaluation of duration of LTM

Answer 46

-Higher external validity: Bahrick studied real life memories which produce more accurate results compared to recall of meaningless pictures. But confounding variables werent controlled, the ppt may have looked at the yearbook recently

Question 47

Forgetting in STM

Answer 47

Displacement: When you get more new info so you forget the old info Decay: where you don't rehearse the info so as time passes you forget it.