Block 2 Flashcards
(621 cards)
1
Q
Which kidney is farther behind?
A
Left kidney (left behind)
2
Q
What is a nephrotomy?
A
Cutting into the kidney
3
Q
What are the 7 indications for a nephrotomy?
A
Renal calculi
Persistent hydronephrosis
Persistent hematuria
Mass / neoplasia
Trauma
Infection
Donation
4
Q
What are the 3 highest risks for a nephrotomy?
A
Hemorrhage
Damage to kidney
Increased kidney values
5
Q
Where do you ligate the ureter during a nephrectomy?
A
At the trigone
6
Q
What are the 2 indications for a sub-ureteral bypass system (SUBs)
A
Ureteroliths within renal pelivis dilation
Ureteral stricture
7
Q
What needle is used for SUBs?
A
Huber needles
8
Q
What are the 3 complications with SUBS
A
Urine leakage
Encrusting of the nephrostomy tube or cystotomy tube
Infection
9
Q
Describe how to perform a uretertomy?
A
Incise over inciting cause and remove stones
10
Q
What are the 2 complications with ureterotomy?
A
Stricture and dehiscence
11
Q
What does a ureteral stent do?
A
Placed from kidney to bladder to treat stones, strictures, or neoplasia
12
Q
What are the 4 complications of ureteral stents?
A
Continued infection
Stent migration
Trauma to ureter
Urinary leakage
13
Q
What is an ectopic ureter?
A
Ureter that is entering in abnormal location into bladder or directly into the urethra
14
Q
What are extramural ectopic ureters?
A
Ectopic ureter that bypasses the bladder completely
15
Q
What are the treatment options for extramural ectopic ureters?
A
Surgery only
16
Q
What are the treatment options for intramural (enter bladder) ectopic ureters?
A
Laser ablation OR surgery
17
Q
What are the 2 surgical options for ureteral reimplement?
A
End to side
Side to side
18
Q
What is the non surgical approach to correcting a ectopic ureter?
A
Laser ablation
-Cystoscopy and a laser to tunnel to the level of the bladder
19
Q
What is the surgery of the ectopic ureter called?
A
Neuorecterocystotomy
20
Q
What does a end to side neuorecterocystotomy look like?
A
Cut ureter and implant via a stab incision into the bladder
21
Q
What does a side to side neuorecterocystotomy look like?
A
Incise into bladder and through the bladder incise into the ureter
22
Q
What are the 4 complications with these surgeries?
A
Strictures
Uroabdomen
Infections
Incontinence
23
Q
Where do the ureters enter the bladder?
A
Dorsolaterally
24
Q
Where does the vascular supply enter the bladder?
A
Dorsally
25
What is the main artery of the bladder?
Caudal vesical artery
26
What is really important to know about the anatomy of the bladder?
****Nerves, ureters, and blood supply of the bladder all enter dorsally!!!
27
What is the singular most common surgical bladder disease?
Urolithiasis
28
What can urolithiasis cause secondary?
UTIs
29
What are the top 3 most common surgical diseases of the bladder?
Urolithiasis
Trauma
Masses (polyps or neoplasia)
30
What are the 2 options for treatment of urolithiasis?
Medical and interventional
31
What is the medical therapy for urolithiasis?
Dissolution
32
What are the only 3 stones you can dissolve?
Struvite, urate, and cystine
33
What is lithotripsy?
Breaking apart with a laser
34
What is the minimum urethral size for lithotripsy?
5 French
35
What is the holding layer for the bladder?
Submucosa
36
How fast does the mucosa of the bladder heal?
5-7 days
37
How fast does it take for the bladder to get to full strength?
14-21 days
38
How much of the bladder can you take?
75%
39
Which direction of the bladder should you never cut?
On the dorsal side!
40
What is the most common bladder surgery?
Cystotomy
41
What suture type do you use for a cystotomy?
Monocryl
42
How many layers do you need to close the bladder?
Can do just the submucosa (holding layer)
43
What is another more advanced surgical option for urolithiasis?
PCCL = percutaneous cystolithotomy
44
What should you do immediatly post surgery for urolithiasis?
Radiographs!
45
What is seen on bloodwork for uroabdomen?
Azotemia
Dehydration (High USG, albumin, PCV/TP)
Metabolic acidosis
Hyperkalemia
46
What can you not use when comparing fluid in abdomen to blood when determining uroabdomen?
BUN, reaches even osmolality quickly
47
What should you see being HIGH in abdominal fluid in a uroabdomen compared to blood?
Creatinine and potassium
48
Where are masses most common in the bladder?
Trigone
49
What is the most common neoplasia of the bladder?
Transitional cell carcinoma
50
What is the widest diameter of male urethra?
2mm (pre and post prostatic)
51
What is diameter of male urethra at bulbourethral glands?
1.3mm
52
What is diameter of male urethra at end?
0.7mm
53
Are uroliths more common in dogs or cats?
Dogs
54
What is the most common surgical option for urethral uroliths?
urethrostomy (not urethrotomy)
55
What is a urethrotomy?
Creation of temporary opening in urethra
56
What type of urethrotomy/urethrostomy do dogs get?
Scrotal
57
What type of urethrotomy/urethrostomy do cats get?
Perineal
58
Why perform a urethrotomy?
If a stone can't be pushed back
59
Why perform a urethrostomy?
Recurrent or persistent urethral obstruction
60
If you perform a urethrostomy, what must you do?
Neuter
61
For a perineal urethrostomy (cat), what level must be reached?
Bulbourethral gland
62
What does a urethrostomy not cure in male cats?
FIC!!
63
What 2 groups of dogs are most likely to have a urethral prolapse?
Brachycephalic dogs (English Bulldogs)
Intact males
64
What is a strong recommendation for a dog that has a persistent urethral prolapse?
Neuter
65
If a patient receives a urethropexy, what is an important complication that needs to be reduced?
Need to keep patient calm (ace and butorphanol) and can't breed for 4-6 weeks
66
What percent of malignancies in dogs are attributed to bladder cancer?
2%
67
What is the most common bladder cancer in dogs and cats?
Transitional cell carcinoma
aka urothelial carcinoma
68
How do urinary tumor patients normally present?
With lower urinary tract signs - hematuria, stranguria, pollakiuria, dysuria
69
What is the most common area of the bladder to develop a tumor?
Trigone!
70
What are the 4 treatments for urinary tumors?
Surgery
NSAIDs
Radiation
Chemotherapy
71
What is an important thing to remember when performing neoplasia surgery in the bladder?
Potential for "seeding"
72
What is an NSAID that has been proven to work against urinary tumors?
Piroxicam (Feldene)
73
What are the 3 things that piroxicam does to decrease cancer
Induction of apoptosis of cancer cells
Inhibition of angiogenesis
Reduction in cell proliferation
74
What are the 2 other NSAIDs that are COX-2 inhibitors that have been shown to be as good as piroxicam?
Deracoxib and firocoxib
75
What is the chemotherapy drug that has the best response rate to urinary tumors?
Vinblastine
76
What was said to be the best option for treating neoplasia of the bladder?
Combination of chemotherapy and NSAID (piroxicam and miloxantrone)
77
What infection is higher in patients with urinary cancers?
UTI
78
What are the 2 most common isolates from urinary cancer UTIs?
E. coli and staph
79
What is a successful way to relieve an obstruction produced from the urinary neoplasia?
Urethral stent
This is a salvage procedure
80
Are urinary cancers usually treatable?
Usually no
81
What is the most common kidney neoplasia in young dogs?
Nephroblastoma
82
What is the renal tumor caused by a missense mutation in German Shepherds?
Renal cystadenocarcinoma
83
What is the most common renal cancer in cats?
Renal lymphoma
84
How is renal lymphoma most often treated?
Chemotherapy
85
What is the typical medical protocol for spays?
Opioid and sedative IM
Induction IV
Inhalant
NSAID
86
What drug is Zorbium
Buprenorphine - Partial mu agonist
87
How long does Zorbium take to take effect?
1-2 hours
88
How long does zorbium act for?
4 days
89
What is a good drug protocol for pig spays?
TKX + morphine
90
What do you need to be aggressive with during mastectomies?
Pain management, they are very painful!
91
What can be done post op to help with the pain from mastectomies?
Full mu, CRI of ket or fentanyl
92
What is high during a uroabdomen/
BUN, creatinine, potassium
Dehydration and metabolic acidosis
93
What drug is specifically good for goats undergoing cystotomies?
Benzodiazepines
94
If the procedure is especially painful, what should be considered?
a CRI
95
What are the 2 most common signalments for cows that have pyelonephritis?
Females
Less than 90 days post calving
96
What are the 3 risk factors for ruminants toward pyelonephritis?
Dystocia
Abortion
Post-partum infections
97
What is the primary agent in ruminants to cause pyelonephritis?
Corynebacterium renale
98
What are the 3 laboratory findings for pyelonephritis?
Leukocytosis
Hyperfibrinogenemia
Hyperglobulinemia
99
What are the 3 things that should be done for treatment of pyelonephritis?
Antibiotics - aggressive and long term
Diuresis - rehydrate and remove debris. Replace protein loss
Nephrectomy
100
Which antibiotic is best used for treatment of the pyelonephritis?
Penicillin
101
Should you continue to treat if it is bilateral pyelonephritis?
No!
102
Which flank should you approach the kidney from?
Either
103
What is the cause of amyloidosis?
Chronic inflammation
104
What is the treatment for amyloidosis?
There isnt one
105
What is possible after a nephrectomy for pyelonephritis?
Transient post-operative worsening of renal enzymes
106
What 2 species are the most common to have urolithiasis?
Goats and sheep
107
What is the main predisposing factor for a blockage?
Early castration
Testosterone on urethral diamteter
108
What is the most common type of stone in Ohio?
Struvite
109
What type of diet causes phosphorus based stones?
Grains
110
What type of diet causes calcium based stones?
Legumes
111
Which type of stone can you not see on radiographs?
Struvite
112
What is a risk factor for producing struvite stones/
Alkaline pH
113
What may be heard in severe blockage cases?
Arrhythmias
114
What drug group do you not want to give to blocked goats?
Alpha 2s - diuretic!
115
What position should you sit the blocked goat in?
On their rump
116
What type of stones can you seen on radiographs (3)
Calcium oxalate
Calcium carbonate
Silicate
117
What 3 markers do you expect to see on a blocked goat?
Creatinine
BUN
Potassium
118
What 3 things can you provide for medical management?
Ammonium chloride (will disolve struvite stones)
Acepromazine - muscle relaxer
Salt block to increase thirst
119
What are 4 decent options for pain management?
Morphine
Torb
Banamine
Meloxicam
120
What are 2 fluid options in blocked goats?
Calcium gluconate - cardioprotectant
Dextrose
121
What else can be provided to reduce concern of cystitis?
Penicillin or Naxcel (ceftiofur)
122
What are the steps to a urethral amputation?
Premed with midazolam and ketamine
Proceed with an angled cut
123
What is an option for stabilization until referral?
PTC or percutaneous tube cystotomy
124
What are 4 complications with PTCs?
Loss of bladder distention
Inadvertent gastrointestinal perforation
Balloon or tube malfunction
Security
125
What are the complications with perineal urethrostomy?
Urine scald
UTI
Stricture
Hemorrhage
126
What is a perineal urethrostomy?
They incise the urethra in the perineal area and pull it out as the new pee pee hole
127
What are 4 ways to prevent blocking goats?
Delayed castration
Increased water intake
Diet modification
Periodic dissolution
128
When should the umbilical stalk be dry by?
3-4 days
129
When should th umbilical stump fall off?
3-4 weeks
130
What should the umbilicus be treated with immediately after birth?
Either 7% iodine or 4% chlorhexidine
131
What is an external umbilical infection called?
Omphalitis
132
What is a urachal infection called?
Urachal abscess
133
What is an umbilical vein infection called?
Omphalophlebitis
134
What is an umbilical artery infection called?
Omphaloarteritis
135
What is the most common type of umbilical infection?
Omphalitis
136
What is the least common type of umbilical infection?
Omphaloarteritis
137
How do you treat an external abscess?
Lance it
Antibiotics (for 5-10 days) with cold hose therapy and some NSAIDS for pain
138
How far do you remove of the urachus?
All the way to the bladder apex
139
What clinical signs will a really sick obstructed patient present with?
Bradycardia
Hypotensive
Hypothermic
140
What is the largest concern for a really sick, blocked cat?
Hyperkalemia
141
What do you do to reduce the risk of cardio issues?
give calcium gluconate is bradycardia, hyperthermic, and hypotensive
142
How long does calcium gluconate last?
Only last 20-30 minutes
143
What should a patient be on before giving the calcium gluconate?
ECG
144
what is given after the calcium gluconate to actually reduce the blood potassium?
Insulin
145
What does the insulin do?
Opens the Na/K ATPase which moves the potassium intracellular
146
Why is calcium gluconate given before insulin?
It takes 15-30 minutes for insulin to take effect
147
What needs to be given in conjunction with insulin?
Dextrose
148
How does dextrose also help by itself?
The dextrose allows for endogenous insulin release
149
What is another thing you can use beside insulin to drive potassium into the cell?
Terbutaline
150
What is the mechanism for terbutaline?
B2 agonist
151
What are adverse side effects of terbutaline?
B2 spill over - tachycardia
B2 mediated vasodilation
152
What is another thing you can use beside terbutaline and insulin?
Sodium bicarbonate
153
What is the mechanism of action of sodium bicarbonate?
H/K antiporter
154
What does sodium bicarbonate also help to do?
Helps reduce metabolic acidosis
155
What are some adverse effects of sodium bicarbonate?
Decreased inionized calcium
Usually not required if appropriate fluid therapy is done. Alkalemia as bad if not worse than the academia if overshot
156
What is the next step after figuring out hyperkalemia?
Giving IV fluids
157
What does providing IV fluids help with?
Resolve azotemia, acidosis, hyperkalemia, dehydration, and hypovolemia
158
What does decompression provide for blocked cats?
Cystocentesis leading to immediate decompression and stabilization before catheterization
159
What should be used for the cystocentesis?
A 3 way stock cock
160
What should be done if when passing a urinary catheter, the cat is vocalizing or moving?
Give more drugs!
161
What mix of drugs should you not provide when catheterizing cat?
Full mu + benzo
Opioid + alphax + benzo
162
What do you hydropulsion with?
Saline lubricant
163
What catheter do you use for the urinary catheter?
Open tipped catheter (tomcat, slippery sam, or mila) - mila seems to be best
164
After passing a catheter and decompression, what is next?
Empty the bladder then flush with saline
165
Finally, suture the catheter in place and attach a sterile collection system
166
What do you do if you can't pass a catheter?
Intermittent cystocentesis until surgery can be performed
167
How does uroabdomen present?
Severe azotemic, hyperkalemic, and acidotic
168
Does uroabdomen constitute a surgical emergency?
NO!
169
What should be done after uroabdomen patient is stabilized?
Given a urinary catheter
Keep bladder/abdomen empty
170
How long does a bladder defect take to heal?
3-5 days
171
Small tears may be conservatively managed but large tears will need surgery
172
Can bacteria be in urine without an infect?
Yes
173
Is urine naturally sterile?
No
174
What are 2 causes of bacteria in urine that aren't UTIs?
FIC
Asymptomatic bacteriuria
175
What are the 2 groups that are most likely to get a UTI?
Spayed female dogs and cats over 10 years
Also incontinent animals and animals with urine retention
176
What are the 2 goals to therapeutic success of treating a UTI?
Eradication of infection
Avoidance of resistance to antibiotics
177
What are the 2 forms of acquired resistance?
Random DNA mutation
Plasmid transfer of DNA by transduction or conjugation
178
What percent of female dogs have subclinical bacteriuria
8.9%
179
There is a poor correlation between a UA and culture results. Lost of false positives
180
What are good antibiotics for UTI?
Amoxicillin or sulfas
181
What does MIC stand for?
Minimum inhibitory concentration
182
What does MPC stand for?
Mutant prevention concentration
183
How long must a patient be on a antibiotic
An adequate time above MIC
Most important thing is that T>MIC
184
Which antibiotics are more time reliant and need dosed more often?
B-lactams, cephalosporins, and macrolides
185
Which antibiotics are concentration dependent?
Fluroquinolones and aminoglycosides
186
If you have a recurrent or resistant UTI, what should your diagnostic approach be?
Culture
Find where infection is hiding
187
Can you use cranberry extract to help prevent UTIs?
Do not use in patients that create calcium oxalate stones!!
188
Is D-mannose ok?
Not recommended but safe
189
Is methenamine ok?
Transforms to formaldehyde in acidic urine
190
What type of dogs does the urethral sphincter mechanism incompetence occur in?
Spayed female dogs
191
What can be used for medical management of urethral sphincter mechanism incompetence?
Alpha agonists
Estrogen compounds
192
What is an alpha agonist that can be used for urethral sphincter mechanism incompetence?
Phenylpropanolamine (proin)
193
What are 3 side effects of proin?
Hypertension
Change in behavior
Change in appetite
194
There is an extended release proin but it isnt labeled for dogs under 10lbs
195
What are estrogen compounds that can be used to treat urethral sphincter mechanism incompetence?
DES
Estriol
196
What are the side effects of DES and estradiol?
Vulvar and mammary swelling
Attractiveness to male dogs
197
What are 2 surgical approaches to urethral sphincter mechanism incompetence
Artificial urethral sphincter
Injection of GAX collagen
198
What causes overactive bladders?
Low compliance of the detrusor muscle
199
What is the treatment for overactive bladders?
Anticholinergic drugs
200
What are the 3 anticholinergics that can treat low compliance?
Oxybutynin
Imipramine
Dicyclomine
201
What is FOO
functional outflow obstruction
Bladder contracts but urethra fails to relax
202
What is a strategy in males that suffer from FOO?
Neuter
203
What is a medical treatment for functional outflow obstruction (FOO)?
Alpha antagonist
204
What alpha antagonist can work to cure FOO?
Prozasin
Tamsulosin
Phenoxybenzamine
205
What is another option medically treating FOO?
Acepromazine, diazepam, anti-anxiety (trazodone/fluoxitine)
206
What is a good way to follow up and monitor FOO?
Measure residual volume
207
May also need to teach owner how to catheterize their dog
208
What is DUD?
Detrusor-urethral dyssynergia
Sphincter will contract after flow is initiated, leaving a large amount of residual urine
209
How to treat DUD?
Reducing smooth and striated muscle tone and reducing anxiety
210
What is the treatment for functional obstruction dysautonomia?
Bethanechol
211
Where is the lesion in automatic UMN bladder?
cranial to S1-S2
212
Where is the lesion in automatic LMN bladder?
At S1-S2
213
What is critical in an automatic LMN bladder?
Bladder is fully expressed and emptied
214
What sort of diet are PLN patients put on?
Protein and phosphate restricted diets
215
Do PLN only patients need the phosphate restriction?
No!
216
What is a supplement that can be given to protect kidneys in PLN patients?
Omega 3
217
What 2 things do omega 3s do to benefit PLN patients?
Reno protective
Suppress inflammation
218
If the kidney diet is already supplemented with omega 3s, do you need to supplement more?
No
219
What happens when RAAS is activated?
This is due to low flow within the kidney so the efferent arterial constricts to maintain GFR
220
What happens with chronic RAAS activation?
Endothelial damage that causes proteinuria and inflammation
221
What are the 3 drugs that block RAAS?
Angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitor (ACEi)
Angiotensin receptor blockers (ARB)
Aldosterone antagonist
222
With the use of ACE inhibitors and the decrease of GFR, what do you expect to see as a result?
Azotemia
223
What is better between ACEi and angiotensin receptor blockers?
ARBs
224
What ARB drug is on the market?
Telmisartan
225
Since aldosterone triggers the kidney to excrete potassium, what do you expect to see with ACEi and ARB?
An increase in serum potassium (hyperkalemia)
226
What are 2 commercial ACE inhibitors?
Enalapril
Benazepril
227
What should be checked 2 weeks after starting these medications?
Blood pressure
Chemistry panel (azotemia and potassium)
228
What protein is lost in proteinuria?
Albumin
229
What happens with hypoalbuminemia?
Differences in oncotic pressure that allows plasma water to leak into the abdomen (ascites)
230
What side effect do you need to be hyperaware of while using a diuretic and an ACEi/ARB?
Dehydration causing serious kidney damage
231
The RAAS slow down the GFR so that more fluid can be filtered but the diuretics increase the amount being filtered out so both combined are additive causing a lot of fluid loss
232
What is the mechanism of action of furosemide?
NaKCl pump blocker in loop of Henle
233
What are the 2 diuretic options/
Furosemide
Spironolactone
234
What is something that furosemide can cause?
Loss of potassium
235
What is the mechanism of action of spironolactone?
Aldosterone antagonist
236
What is a concern for spironolactone?
It is potassiums sparing
Patients that are on an ACEi or an ARB that may already be hyperkalemic may have issues here
237
What is often paired with RAAS inhibitor drugs to control hypertension?
Amlodipine
(hydralazine is another)
238
What is the mechanism of action of amlodipine?
Ca channel blocker
239
Typically, if the hypertension isn't that high, you can start with just using a RAAS inhibitor but if this isnt the case, you will need to switch to using both RAAS inhibitor and amlodipine (or even more)
240
What immunosuppressive drug does she like for PLN?
Mycophenolate
241
What is an issue with PLN to do with clotting?
Decreased clotting time due to loss of antithrombin III
242
What is the most effective treatment of AKI?
Careful fluid management
243
What 2 phases are treatment most successful in AKI?
Induction and extension phases
244
what is the average fluid loss per day in dogs?
22 mL/kg/day
245
What is the primary sensible fluid loss?
Urine
246
What is an amount less than needed to excrete was products?
Oliguria ( <0.5 mL/kg/hr)
247
What is the normal need to execute products?
Nonoliguria (0.5-2.0)
248
What is maintenance fluid therapy?
66mL/kg/day
249
Can you give excess fluids to force diuresis?
No!
250
What is the ins and outs method in AKI?
Matching the amount put in to the amount that comes out
251
What are the 3 components to volume calculation?
Insensible loss (respiration and normal stool)
Urine volume replacement
Ongoing loss (V+, D+, body cavity drainage)
252
What is the average insensible loss?
22 ml/kg/day
253
What happens after administration of crystalloid fluid?
80% will move into the interstitium causing edema leading to decreased oxygen and metabolite diffusion
254
What is the shock dose of crystalloids in dogs? cats?
60-90 ml/kg
45-60 ml/kg
1/4 is given over 5 to 15 min
255
What is the formula for correcting dehydration?
body weight x estimated % dehydration = fluid deficit in L
256
What percent dehydrated are apparently normal patients assumed to be?
5%
257
When should a colloid solution be given?
If hypoalbuminemia is present
258
Should synthetic colloids be used?
No! Associated with a higher risk of AKI
259
Do diuretics to increase urine output improve the outcome of AKI?
No!
260
Do the use of diuretics to treat over hydration have a benefit?
Yes
261
What is a good diuretic to use?
Mannitol
262
Furosemide should not be given to patients with amino glycoside-induced AKI
263
What may be seen in uremic patients when assessing hydration status?
Dry mouth (xerostomia)
264
What is the amount of urine production ion a healthy animal?
1-2 ml/kg/hr
265
What is a good way to determine urine volume?
Placing an indwelling catheter (most precise method)
266
What may be the only sign of FIC?
Periuria
267
What is the ratio of male to female cats with FIC?
Roughly equal
268
What is the ratio of male to female cats with FIC when blocked?
2:1
269
What are 2 main risk factors for cats with FIC?
Overweight and indoor only
270
What is the best way to treat FIC?
Decrease stress in the home
271
What are ways to decrease stress in the home?
multiple food places, waters, and litter boxes
272
What are the 3 parts to the 3 pronged approach for FIC?
Decrease stressors
Water and food
Increase natural behavior
273
What about water can be changed?
Increase water intake
Goal of USG <1.030
274
Is there evidence of efficacy of using NSAIDS or steroids with FIC?
NO!
275
What are some medical therapy options?
Usually daily pilling causes more stress
During a flare up can use gabapentin
Fluoxetine can be used daily to reduce flares
276
How many FIC cats recur?
40-60%
277
What shape are struvites?
rectangle
278
Are struvites dissolvable?
Yes
279
Where is the most common area to see struvite?
Bladder
280
What are the 3 predisposing dietary factors?
High Mg
High Phosphorus
Low quality foods
281
What should the pH of the urine be to help dissolve the struvite?
Low!!
282
What food should you feed to help dissolve then prevent struvite?
Hills c/d
283
What percentage of stones are struvite in dogs?
50%
284
What sex gets struvite more often?
Female
285
Is struvite associated with UTI from staph?
YES!
286
What should you be aware of as dissolution of struvite continues?
Bacteria!
287
What stones tend to develop in acidic urine?
Calcium oxalate
288
Is there a sex predilection in cats?
No
289
Should you treat with antibitoics throughout the stone dissolution?
Yes + 1 month
290
Do Calcium Oxalate dissolve?
Nope
291
What is the most common stone in cats?
Calcium oxalate
292
How do you remove CaOx stones?
Have to physically remove
293
What are 2 ways to decrease chance of developing CaOx stones?
Increase water intake
Stay away from acidifying diets
294
What supplement should you avoid giving in cats for CaOx stones?
Vitamin C
295
What dogs get CaOx stones?
Old dogs
296
in cats and dogs with urate stones, what should you look for?
Hepatic dysfunction
297
Are urate stones dissolvable in cats?
No
298
What diet should patients with urate stone be on?
Low protein diets
299
What do Dalmatians not do?
Do not convert uric acid to allantoin
Urate stones much more common in Dalmatians
300
are urate stones dissolvable in dogs?
Yeah
301
What pH should the urine maintain for most stones?
Neutral
302
How many types of cystine mutations are there
3
303
What should you do to avoid the cystine mutation complications?
Neuter!
304
Do cystine show up on rads?
No! Use ultrasound
305
What is the most important factor in prevention of stones?
Dilute urine
USG < 1.030
306
What is a less invasive method of removing stones?
Lithotripsy - laser followed by hydropulsion
Not useful with cystine stones
307
Are nephroliths usually removed in SA?
No unless recurrent UTI
308
What is the most common cause of ureteral obstruction in cats?
Ureteroliths (95% CaOx)
309
How long does it take to cause permanent renal impairment?
4 weeks
Big kidney little kidney
310
What is the first step in medical management of stones?
IV fluid diuresis
311
What is IV fluid diuresis?
Increase of fluids to push the stone through (Very painful_
312
What does IV fluid diuresis help to do?
Stabilize patient, reduce azotemia, improve perfusion
313
What are 2 drugs that will help to relax the ureter?
Prozasin (alpha antagonist)
Tamsulosin (alpha 1 A)
314
What is a side effect of prozasin?
Risk of hypotension
315
What pain control can you use?
Gabapentin
Opioids
316
How many cats did the medical management of diuresis work on?
7/52 (not a lot)
317
What are 2 surgical management options for ureter stones?
Feline ureteral stenting
Subcutaneous ureteral bypass
318
What are the steps in inseminating a mare
Mare determined best time to inseminate
Stallion owner notified
Semen collected
Semen diluted with extender to provide nutrients during shipping
Semen packaged and shipped overnight
Mare inseminated
319
What type of semen to bovine AI give?
Exclusively frozen
320
Does frozen or cooled semen require more precise timing?
Frozen
321
How long does frozen seem last after being thawed?
12-24 hours
322
How long can cooled semen be stored?
Up to 48 hours
323
Where is the sit of insemination of horses?
Body of the uterus
324
Where is the site of insemination of cows?
Body of the uterus
325
Where is the site of insemination of dogs?
Vagina (fresh or cooled) or body of the uterus (fresh, cooled, or frozen)
326
What is the success rate of cow AI? Equine? Canine?
60%
70% (fresh, cooled) 50% (frozen)
90% (fresh, cooled) 60% (frozen)
327
How long is proestrus in dogs?
9 days
328
How long is estrus in dogs?
9 days
329
What is day 0 in dogs?
Start of estrus or at luteal surge
330
How can you determine if a bitch is in heat from a vaginal cytology?
If there are cornified cells (cells look like corn flakes)
331
Is it normal for there to be intracellular bacteria for a dog in heat?
Yes!!
332
How is ovulation confirmed in a bitch using progesterone?
If the progesterone has risen by 3-4 ng/mL
333
How many days after the LH surge does the bitch ovulate?
Roughly 48 hours (2 days)
334
In a vaginoscopy, how will the vagina appear during estrus?
dried up
335
Day 0 - LH surge
Day 2 - Ovulation
Day 4 - Fertile period
336
Where must frozen semen be placed in bitches?
In the uterus
337
When do you inseminate with the frozen semen?
5-6 days after LH surge
338
What two species are pseudopregnancies clinically relevant in?
Dogs and goats
339
What is another name for pseudopregnancy?
Cloudburst
340
What can you give dog to prevent stimulation of mammaary glands?
Prolactin antagonist
341
How long does pseudopregnancy in dog take to resolve?
4-8 weeks
342
How do you treat cloudburst (pseudopregnancy in goats)
May resolve on own
Give prostaglandin
1 injection - 50% resolution
2 injections - 95% resolution
3 injections 100% resolution
343
What will happen in subsequent cycles for goats?
Only 20-50% fertility in subsequent cycles
344
What is the most common cause of obstruction in dogs vs cats
Dogs - stones
Cats - FIC
345
How do you terminate a mare pregnancy before 35 days?
Single PGF2alpha injection
346
How do you terminate a mare pregnancy 35-120 days?
3-5 daily injections of PGF2alpha
347
How do you terminate a cattle pregnancy before 150 days?
Prostaglandin
348
How do you terminate a cattle pregnancy after 150 days?
Dexamethasone
349
What is the best option for termination of pregnancy in dogs?
Spay
350
What percent of bitches aren't pregnancy after a single breeding?
62%
351
What canine pregnancy termination tactic is no longer used!!!!
Estrogens!! "Mismate shot"
352
What is the mismate shot that works?
Prostaglandin shot
353
What do you have to be aware about of the prostaglandin shots?
Ensure pregnancy, it makes the dog really sick
Single dose is not enough!
354
Prostaglandins must be administered until abortion is complete. They can abort some but whelp others
355
What is another injection that can be given. What is the downside?
Glucocorticoids (dexamethasone)
Downside is that live fetuses may pass
356
What are the positives of glucocorticoids (dex)?
Inexpensive
Preserves future fertility
80% effective
Begin after day 35, if above day 50, live, non-viable pups will be delivered
357
What is an emergency reason for castration
Testicular torsion
358
What do you want to avoid doing when prepping for the prescrotal approach?
Clipping or applying scrub to the scrotum (very sensitive)
359
What side of the table do you stand on for a prescrotal castration?
The patient's left
360
Go through what suture sizes you would use for PDS of ligation?
0 for >15
2-0 for 10-15
3-0 for 2-10
4-0 for <2
361
Where do you place the clamps in an open castration?
Fenestrate window between deferent duct (pampiniform plexus) and the vaginal tunic
362
Where do you cut for a cat in a scrotal approach?
Incise over each testicle
363
Where do you cut for a puppy in a scrotal approach?
In between each testicle
364
What will poorly secured ligations on pedicles cause?
Hemoperitoneum (hemorrhage)
365
What is a complication with an open castration?
Cremaster muscle hemorrhage
366
If you can't find the testicle, where is it always?
At the end of the deferent duct
367
What are 2 things that crypts have a higher rate of?
Neoplasia
Torsion
368
What is an odd complication with crypt castration?
Inadvertent complete prostatectomy
(Prostate is mistaken for testicle)
369
What is the most common source of hemorrhage in spay/neuter?
Dropped pedicle
370
What should you do before each closure?
Check gutter
371
What are easy bedside diagnostics to identify hemorrhage?
PCV/TP
Blood pressure
FAST scan
372
What does the PCV need to be on an abdominocentisis to consider hemorrhage?
>10%
Or similar to peripheral
373
Should you immediately jump to surgery if you think there may be hemorrhage?
No!
374
What is first step if you identify there is hemorrhage?
Gain IV access and give fluid bolus
375
What is a non surgical approach to treating the hemorrhage?
Place an abdominal compression bandage
376
What is a seroma?
Accumulation of fluid within the dead space
377
Is a seroma an infection
No
378
What is the treatment for seroma?
Warm compression for 3 days
379
What are the 3 parts to ovarian remnant syndrome
Estrus causing undesired behaviors
Risk of pyometras
Loss of protection from mammary tumors
380
What should be the top differential for post spay patients with persistent signs of estrus?
Ovarian remnant syndrome
381
After surgical removal of ovarian tissue, what should you do?
Submit to histopath for confirmation it was ovarian tissue
382
What is seen on bloodwork with stump pyometras?
Neutropenic
Nonregenerative anemia
Azotemia
383
What is treatment for stump pyo?
Broad spectrum antibiotics
Remove abscessed uterine tissue
384
How common are mammary tumors in cats?
3rd most common
385
How common are mammary tumors in intact dogs?
Most common!
386
How old are dogs and cats with mammary tumors?
Old
387
How much does being intact for a cat increase the chance for mammary tumors?
7x
388
What age of spay has the most protection against developing a mammary tumor for cats?
before 6 months
389
There is no protective effects of a spay for dogs after how many estrus cycles?
3
390
Treatment with progesterone-like agents increases the risk by how much?
2.3x
391
What percent of mammary tumors are malignant in dogs?
Roughly 50%
392
What are the 4 parts of the staging / work up of mammary tumors?
FNA of masses
Thoracic rads
Abdominal US
Palpation of mammary glands
393
What is the 50:50 rule of mammary tumors?
50% are malignant
50% that are malignant will metastasize or reoccur
394
How do you treat a mass <1cm?
lumpectomy
395
How do you treat a mass > 1 cm and central on mammary mass
Mammectomy
396
How do you treat masses in adjacent glands?
Regional mastectomy
397
How do you treat multiple masses in multiple glands on same side?
Unilateral chain mastectomy
398
How do you treat masses in multiple glands bilaterally?
Bilateral chain mastectomy
399
What is the only time we remove rectus fascia, partial or full-thickness body wall?
Radical mastectomy where they are fixed to body wall
400
What is a stage 1 tumor?
<3cm
401
What is a stage II tumor?
3-5cm
402
What is a stage III tumor?
>5cm
403
What is a stage V tumor?
Any tumor but distant metastasis
403
What is a stage IV tumor?
Any size mass but regional LN
404
What is prognostic in cat's mammary tumors?
Size
404
What is 80:20 rule in cats?
80% of mammary tumors are malignant in cats
405
What is the recommended treatment of cat mammary tumors?
Chain mastectomy
406
OVH before 3rd estrus in dogs and before 6m in cats
Lumpectomy is not ok in cats
Size matters in mammary tumors >3cm is poor prognosis in cats and dogs
407
Are inflammatory carcinomas a good prognosis?
NO! not surgical
408
What's the very first thing you should do when an obviously blocked cat comes in?
ECG
Monitor bradycardia
409
How long does calcium gluconate work?
20-30 minutes
409
What are 4 common ECG changed with hyperkalemia?
Prolonged P-R interval
Prolonged QRS
Spiked T wave
Absent P wave
410
What should patient be hooked up to while being given calcium gluconate?
ECG
411
What is the first thing that should be administered to a blocked cat?
Calcium gluconate
412
What situation is terbutaline not good for?
Heart disease patients
413
What can occur to potassium after resolution of obstruction?
Hypokalemia
413
Are blocked cats acidotic or alkalitic?
Acidotic
414
Can you use a classic tomcat catheter for urinary catheterization?
NO!
414
What catheter is used for U catheterizing cats?
Mila
415
Dogs require heavy sedation for urinary catheterization
416
Is uroabdomen a surgical emergency?
No!
417
How many calories should cats consume?
50kcal/kg
418
What are 3 anti-nausea drugs?
Cerenia
Ondansetron
Mirtazapine
418
What is the go-to for appetite stimulation in cats?
Mirtazapine
419
What are 2 anti-emetics?
Ondansetrons
Mirtazapine
420
How is mirtazapine administered?
transdermal
421
What is the go to for dogs?
Capromorelin (Entyce)
422
What is the equivalent to entyce for cats?
Elura
423
Which form of mirtazapine has less side effects?
Transdermal
424
What is the mechanism of action for Elura?
Gherkin agonist
425
What are the side effects (2) for elura that causes a contraindication in CKD patients
Bradycardia and hypotension
426
What is the most important thing to modify in a formulated diet for CKD patients?
Phosphorus
427
If phosphorus is still high on phosphorus diets, what can be given?
Phosphorus binders
428
Does protein need to be lower in CKD diets?
No
429
What happens to FGF23 when fed an phosphorus limited diet?
Decreases
429
Are nutritional or functional sources of phosphorus more bioavailable?
Functional sources
430
What happens to FGF23 with higher IRIS staging
Tend to be higher
431
In cats with lower FGF23 concentrations, do they tend to have higher or lower azotemia?
Lower!
Basically, lower FGF23 is better and cats on low phosphorus diets tend to have lower FGF23. GOOD!
432
Tell me about the calcium to phosphorus ratio
Diets with a Ca:P ratio of less than 1 cause kidney damage
433
Is inorganic or organic phosphates better?
Organic
434
Are organic and inorganic phosphates labeled on the bag?
No!
435
Too little calcium will cause renal damage
436
What is the ideal range for Ca:Phos diet?
1.0:1.4
436
What might tend to happen to calcium after eating a low phosphorus diet?
Development of hypercalcemia
437
Does calcitriol (vitamin D) help cats with CKD?
No evidence
438
What is functionally lost with kidney disease?
Ability to concentrate urine
439
Due to the inability to concentration urine, what is caused?
Dehydration
440
What does dehydration cause?
Inappetance, lethargy, weakness, constipation, stone formation, UTI
441
What can the owner do to manage hydration (2)?
SQ fluids
Water fountains
442
Cats with chronic kidney disease found to be at an increased risk of presenting for constipation
Significantly lower dedication frequency in CKD cats compared to healthy cats
Teach owner to use a fecal chart!
443
Why do you need to manage hypokalemia with constipation associated with CKD?
Need potassium for GI movement
444
How do you increase potassium in CKD patients
Pick a diet higher in potassium
Or supplement
445
Should you pick potassium citrate or potassium gluconate as supplement?
Potassium citrate, its alkalinizing (usually CKD patients are acidotic)
446
What negative things comes from colonic metabolism?
Protiens -> uremic toxins
447
What are 2 drugs to help produce less uremic toxins?
Azodyl and porus one
448
What is a benefit of porus one?
Can be sprinkled on food
449
Systemic hypertension becomes a large issue with CKD
450
What should you always check on cats with retinal lesions?
Their urine values
451
When should you treat a cat for hypertension?
If its >>200
451
What is a stable drug to use for hypertension in cats with retinal damage?
Amlodipine
452
What drug is the first choice for proteinuria in cats?
Telmisartan
453
What percent of cats with CKD have anemia
Like 50%
454
Does anemia increase with IRIS stage?
Yes
455
What type of anemia is it?
Non-regenerative
456
What are 2 medical treatments for CKD anemia?
Darbepoetin
Varenzin
456
What is the current treatment of choice for CKD animals
Darbepoetin
457
What is a downside to treating anemia caused by CKD with darbepoetin?
Expensive
458
What should be done often with cats on darbypoieten?
Check for polycythemia
Hypertension!!
459
You may also see iron deficincies in CKD cats
Can't give oral iron supplements
459
What are 3 reasons to remove warts on penis caused by bovine papilloma virus?
Reluctance to breed
Phimosis
Paraphimosis
459
What is paraphimosis
Can't retract penis
459
What is phimosis
Can't extend penis
460
What are 3 ways to remove the penile warts?
Sharp dissection
Electrocaudery
CO2 laser
461
What is preputial avulsion?
Separation of internal lamina from penis
462
What is the recovery for preputial avulsion?
8 weeks sexual rest
463
How do you treat a preputial prolapse?
Reduce edema
Replace prepuce
464
What is a reefing procedure?
Prepucial resection and anastomosis
8 weeks sexual rest
465
Does reefing procedure or preputial amputation have a better prognosis?
Reefing
466
467
When are vaginal prolapses?
Before calving
468
When are rectal prolapses?
Before calving
469
When are uterine prolapses?
After calving
469
Which one of the prolapses are emergencies?
Uterine prolapse
470
Why is the uterine prolapse an emergency an emergency?
Pulling on uterine artery
471
Which one of the prolapses is hereditary?
Vaginal and Rectal
472
What is first degree prolapse?
Only seen when cow is on ground
473
What is second degree prolapse?
Vaginal floor protrudes all the time
474
What is third degree prolapses?
Cervix and majority of vagina exposed
475
What is fourth degree prolapse?
Chronic often with vaginal necrosis
476
What epidural should be used?
Sacrococcygeal epidural
477
What is an option to keep in during calving?
Modified Minchev
477
What is considered normal loss for neonates?
10%
478
What are sick neonates?
ALWAYS AN EMERGENCY
478
What 5 things should the owner bring in?
1. the entire litter
2. the mom
3. a way to keep them warm
4. the dead pups
5. data sheets on the pups
479
*****What are the 4 H's of sick neonates
Hypothermia
Hypovolemia
Hypoglycemia
Hypoxia
480
What is fading puppy syndrome?
Litter was dying and we dont know why (lots of potential reasons)
481
What can you not rely on to determine hydration status of pups?
Skin tent
481
What is #2 cause of death in neonates/
Sepsis
482
What are 2 ways to determine hydration status of pups?
MM color
USG (<1.020)
483
What temp must pups be above to digest milk
94
484
What is normal temp for pups
96-98
484
What antibiotics need to be avoided in neonates?
Aminoglycosides
Tetracyclines
485
What is the first line of treatment in pups?
Antibiotics
-Septic until proven otherwise
486
When is gut closure from colostrum of pups?
12-16hrs
487
What is the #1 cause of death in neonates?
Hypothermia
488
What is neonatal isoerythrolysis (NI)
A blood type kittens born to B mother
489
Where are testes at birth in horses?
Testis are inguinal
490
How long does it take the gubernaculum to regress
first month of life
490
How to treat NI?
Step nursing immediately
Blood transfusion
491
What are 2 reasons to do a closed castration
Opens conduit to abdomen
Can force intestines through inguinal ring
492
What should you give before castration of horse?
Tetanus vax
493
What is the rule of thumb for pressure on emasculator?
1 minute for each year of life
494
How long should a gelding be kept away after gelding?
30 days
Semen allegedly viable for 7 days
494
What do you need to do after geldings?
Force exercise 30 minutes 1-2 times daily for 3-5 days
495
Should you castrate descended testicle if you can't find the other testicle?
No!!!
495
What are the 2 types of crypts?
Inguinal retention
Abdominal retention
496
What is the method of stopping hemorrhage ?
Pack with a gauze roll
497
What should you do if eventuation occurs?
Wrap horse and refer
498
If a hernia is reversible, it can be reduced multiple days per day for 3-6 months
499
What is priapism
persistent erection
500
What is paraphimosis
can't retract
501
What is more of an emergency?
Priapism
502
How do you treat priapism?
Anticholinergic
Lavage of corpus cavernous
Removal of penis
503
What is the most common genital tumor?
SCC
504
How do you treat paraphimosis
Sling
Removal of penis
504
How old is the bitch before you should consider a c section?
>6 years
505
What are 3 indications for small animal C section?
Prolonged gestation
Maternal toxemia
Dystocia
(elective)
506
What size litters indicate C section?
<3 pups
>7 pups
507
What breeds should you consider a c section with?
Brachycephalic (head size and pelvis size)
508
Should you ever do a c section out of convenience?
NO!!!!
509
509
When should you perform an elective C section?
within 48 hours of natural partition
510
When is the estimated due date?
63-65 days after LH surge
510
How do you predict date of partition?
No single way
Use estimated date
Fetal maturation
Progesterone
510
What is the normal fetal HR?
>200
511
When are the tails, teeth, and paws ossified?
roughly 4 days before birth
512
What will progesterone be between within 12-48 hours of birth?
2-3ng/mL
Need to be above 2 to maintain pregnancy
513
Why dont singletons trigger birth?
Fetal cortisol initiates birth, a singleton will not produce enough cortisol
514
What are the 2 cardiovascula impacts on pregnancy?
Functional anemia (increased plasma volume)
Decreased BP
515
What are the CNS effects from pregnancy?
Decreased MAC
516
What local pain control measures should you take for a c section?
Line block with lidocaine
517
Where is the incision made into the uterus?
Ventral midline incision
518
How do you remove the umbilical cord from the pups?
Place 2 hemostatic clips and cut between
519
What type of placenta does the canine placenta have?
Zonary
520
What should you do if you get a macerate fetus? (stillborn)
Biopsy and culture placental sites and submit fetal tissue
521
How can you safely provide pain control post C section?
carprofen
522
What is the major goal of c section anesthesia?
Minimize effects of anesthetic drug
523
What are the big 4 Hs of anesthesia?
Hypotension
Hypothermia
Hypoxemia
Hypoventilation
524
What causes bradycardia in neonates?
Myocardial hypoxia
525
Does atropine cross the placenta?
YES!
526
What anticholanergic doesn't cross the placenta?
!!!!Glycopyrrolate!!!
527
Atropine has little effect on heart rate until the pip is about 14 days old
Doesn't help to give pups atropine
528
How is cardiac output increased (compensatory) during pregnancy?
Increase in HR and SV
529
What is the equation for cardiac output?
CO = HR x SV
530
What is the equation for blood pressure?
BP = CO x systemic vascular resistance
531
What is the supine position?
Laying on the back
532
What occurs in pregnancies when women are in the supine position?
Compression of vena cava and a decrease in preload (decrease in cardiac output)
533
What is caused by a pregnancy?
Elevation on diaphragm
534
What 3 things decrease as a result of elevation of diaphragm?
Functional residual capacity
Expiratory reserve volume
Residual volume
535
Due to delayed gastric emptying, stomach may not be empty at time of surgery
536
Pneumonia has been reported in _____ of dogs that died following c section.
50%
537
What is the reason for decreased MAC during pregnancy?
Progesterone
538
Can all of the premed drugs affect the neonate?
YES!!!!
539
What drug groups are contraindicated in pregnancies?
Alpha-2s due to vasoconstriction
540
If you must use alpha 2s, what should you do after induction?
Reversal
541
What drugs should be avoided in dehydrated and/or hypotensive animals?
NSAIDS
542
Alphax has been shown to have better APGAR after 1 hour but no difference with Propofol after 24 hours
543
If you are administering an opioid, when should you give it/
After delivery of all neonates
544
What patient position helps to reduce pressure on diaphragm?
Reverse trendelenburg
545
Prior to recovery, what can you do to help with pain management?
Perform epidural (morphine PF)
546
What needs to be given to the neonates if opioid, benzodiazepines, or dex was given to dam
Naloxone
Flumazenil
Atipamezole
547
What is the acupuncture stimulatory point?
GV26
548
What is an uncomplicated UTI?
UTI in a healthy animal and no underlying systemic conditions (easier to treat)
549
What is a complicated UTI?
Usually anatomical abnormalities, systemic disease, or recurrent infection
550
What is empirical therapy?
Treatment started before culture results
551
What is a normal USG in cats?
Above 1.035
552
What cuff size is chosen for BP?
30=40% circumference of limb
553
How many BP measurements should be taken?
5-6
discard the first and average the rest
554
What does a high anion gap mean?
Metabolic acidosis
555
When should you IRIS stage?
When the patient is stable
556
What appetite stimulant should a CKD patient be started on?
Mirataz
557
What are most CKD diets supplemented with?
Potassium
558
What hypertension drug should a CKD cat be put on?
Amlodipine
559
What should be changed before starting on a phosphate binder?
Diet!
560
What is a drug option form anemia in CKD patients?
Darbopoetin
561
How long are cows in heat for?
6-12 hrs
562
What is pgf2alpha
Prostaglandin
563
What does progesterone?
Blocks heat and ovulation
564
Where does progesterone come from?
The CL
565
What does PGF do when administered?
Destroys CL and progesterone declines
566
Where is estradiol produced?
In the follicle
567
What induces ovulation?
LH surge
568
What is the precursor to LH?
GnRH
569
Where are the receptors for LH and FSH?
On the follicle
570
How many calves are born per cow a year?
1
571
How long is uterine involution?
30 days
572
How long is estrus cycle?
21 days
573
How long after LH surge is ovulation?
28h (1 day)
574
What drug blocks ovulation?
Progesterone
575
When is estradiol high?
When progesterone is low
576
What are the 4 steps of ovsync
GnRH, 7 days later PG
2 days later GnRH, 16 h later AI
577
First GnRH causes ovulation or lutes follicle present. PGF lyses any luteal tissue present. 2nd GnRH induces ovulation
578
What does CIDR release?
GnRH
579
Do we believe an owner when they say its time for the pup to give birth?
No!!
580
What 3 things occur about 1-2 weeks before partition in dogs?
Clear/tan vulvar discharge
Anorexia or panting
Mammary development
581
What happens to a pups body temp about 24 hrs prior to birth?
Drops 2 degrees
Never take a dog to C section based on temperature!
582
What is the easiest and most reliable way to predict partition?
Serum progesterone
583
What is stage I of parturition?
Cervical dilation
No contractions
Nesting/restless
Up to 12 hours
584
What is stage II of parturition?
Water breaks and cervix dilates
NO FRANK BLOOD
Up to 4 hours until first pup and 2 hours between pups
585
What is stage III of parturition?
Passage of placenta
586
What if there is green vulvar discharge before pups?
BAD! Emergency c section
587
***What is dose of oxytocin?
0.1-0.25mL
588
How many times may you give oxytocin?
"3 strikes you're out"
589
What is controlled vaginal delivery
Under GA, no contractions
590
What are the 2 maternal causes of dystocia?
Failure of expulsive forces
Obstruction of birth canal
591
What are the 4 fetal causes of dystocia?
Failure to initiate birth
Fetopelvic disproportion
Fetal maldisposition
Fetal death
592
What are the survival times for dystopias in mares, ruminants, dogs?
Mare - 30 minutes
Ruminants - 3-6 hours
Dogs 1-2 hours
593
What direction do the front joints bend? Back joints?
Front - same direction
Back - opposite directions
594
How long after foaling is a foal heat?
1 week
595
How do you create more space for a calf?
Rotating the calf 45 degrees creates more area
596
