Booklet 6 - Global Commons Flashcards
(73 cards)
1
Q
Define Global Commons
A
Areas and resources that are un-owned and consequently beyond national jurisdiction
2
Q
What are the four global commons
A
- The High Seas
- The Atmosphere
- Antarctica
- Outer Space
3
Q
Conventions + treaties representing the high seas:
A
- 1982 United Nations convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS)
- International maritime organisation and regional seas conventions of the United Nations environment programme (UNEP)
4
Q
Convention protecting the atmosphere:
A
- United Nations framework convention on climate change (UNFCCC) and a multitude of international environmental treaties
5
Q
Treaty Protecting Antarctica
A
The Antarctic Treaty system (ATS)
6
Q
Treaty protecting outer space:
A
Treaty on principles governing the activities of states in the exploration and use of outer space (The Moon Agreement)
7
Q
Where does the Antarctic treaty cover?
A
Any area 60 degrees South of the Equator
8
Q
Two largest ice shelves in Antarctica:
A
- Ronne Ice shelf- Weddell Sea
- Ross Ice shelf- Ross Sea
9
Q
What is the Antarctic convergence zone?
A
Dividing line which loops all the way around the continent. Separates cold North- flowing waters from the warmer waters of the subantarctic- highly productive marine environment
10
Q
Which part of Antarctica is stable?
A
The East Antarctic Ice sheet (EAIS)
Due to very cold temps
11
Q
Which part of Antarctica is unstable?
A
The West Antarctic Ice Sheet (WAIS)
Much of the ice sits below sea level- sensitive to small sea level rise
12
Q
Which part of Antarctica is vulnerable?
A
The Antarctic Peninsula (AP)
One of the most rapidly warming places in the world
Temps increased by 3 DC over the past 50 years
90% of glaciers are receding
13
Q
Lowest Temperature ever recorded in Antarctica
A
-89 degrees celsius
14
Q
Common Wind Speeds in Antarctica can reach
A
300 km/h
15
Q
Why is Antarctica a Polar Desert
A
- Receives very little rainfall (166mm)
- One of the driest place on Earth
- Rainfall below 250mm
16
Q
Threats to Antarctica:
A
- Climate Change
- Fishing and Whaling
- Mineral Extraction
- Tourism and Scientific Research
17
Q
Why is Climate Change a threat to Antarctica
A
- Global warming results in melting ice caps, sea ice and land ice
- Anthropogenic climate change (increasing use of fossil fuels and population growth)
- Carbon dioxide enters the atmosphere by burning of fossil fuels, creates carbonic acid and makes the slightly alkaline ocean less alkaline and more acidic- destroys habitats
18
Q
How much has the speed of ice loss increased by since the end of the 20th century? (Impact of CC)
A
Quadrupled
19
Q
How many gigatons of ice have been lost from the arctic ice sheet and what has this contributed to? (Impact of CC)
A
- 2700 gigatons
- 8 mm of sea level rise
20
Q
How much has air temperature risen by in the last 50 years in Antarctica? (Impact of CC)
A
- 3 DC
- Much faster than average for global warming according to the IPCC
21
Q
What is occurring to the Western side of Antarctica? (Impacts of CC)
A
Losing ice and not gaining sea ice, smaller and more vulnerable so more likely to slide into the sea (warm side)
22
Q
What is happening to the Eastern side of Antarctica? (Impact of CC)
A
- Ice sheet is thickening (cold side)
- Warmer seas increase evaporation to condense into cloud
- Falls as extra snow
- Positive feedback system
- In 2013, sea ice was at an all-time record extent of 20 million km squared
23
Q
What is happening to Biodiversity in Antarctica? (impact of CC)
A
- Distribution of penguin colonies has changed
- Melting of snow and ice has increased colonisation by plants
- Decline in abundance of Antarctic krill
- Ice shelves breaking increases the rate of the glaciers behind them moving- melting of these glaciers will cause sea levels to rise
24
Q
Degree of threat of climate change in Antarctica:
A
- Very hard to manage- needs to be tackled at a global scale- COP 26/28 are examples of management
- Temperatures are predicted to rise by a small amount over the next 50 years, any increase in rare of ice melting is expected to be partly offset by increased snowfall as a result of warming
25
How much has global fish consumption increased by and what has it led to?
- Increased by 122% from 1990 to 2018
- Countries are keen to ensure food security
- Exploitation of North Atlantic led to attention turning to the Southern Ocean
26
When was whaling highly profitable and what from?
19th century: Norwegian, American & British exploitation of blue whales for oil and baleen, meat and bonemeal, frozen whale meat
27
What country acts as the main threat to Antarctic Whales?
- Japan
- Have a special permit/moratorium (NewRep- A) which allows them to kill 333 minke whales every whaling season
28
Impacts of fishing and whaling on Antarctica:
- Decline in biodiversity- can also lead to endangered species
- Large impact on krill- keystone species- everything is dependent on them. At the height of Krill fishing in the 1980s, the USSR and Japan would catch approximately 500,000 tonnes (roughly 0.13% of all krill)
- China's growing population has led to more fishing in the Antarctic area. Since. 2020, they have caught 100,000 tonnes of krill alone
29
Degree of the threat of fishing and whaling in Antarctica:
- Hard to monitor in such a vast area
- Technology has increased the degree of the threat- larger trawlers are able to cope with harsh ocean conditions
- Threat of oil spills
- IWC- 1946 led to an end to whaling in 1985. Severity of whaling has decreased somewhat overtime as blue whales were given international protection from whaling in 1965 + sei and fin whales were given protection by the IWC in the 1970s
- Not all nations signed up
- Southern Ocean Whale Sanctuary
30
How is mineral exploitation a threat to Antarctica?
- Advancements in technology make transport of equipment and movement to Antarctica more accessible
- Largest coal field on the planet, the opportunities for mining and accessing other rare resources e.g. coal, oil, gold, silver cause conflict in a range of areas
- Population growth leads to increased demand
- Melting ice may exploit resources
31
Positives of mineral exploitation in Antarctica:
- Economic opportunities- offers economic benefits by providing access to valuable minerals and resources that are in demand globally
- Technological advancements- may drive environmental management too
- Job creation- in mining for scientists, engineers and support staff
- Resource security- enhance global resource security
32
Negatives of mineral extraction in Antarctica:
- Environmental impact- e.g. fossil fuel usage + disturbing important ecosystems
- Global opposition- may lead to international conflicts
- Scientific research interruption- Antarctica is a crucial location for scientific research and mining activities may disrupt this and compromise integrity of the scientific communities research
- Unknown consequences
33
Degree of threat of mineral exploitation to Antarctica:
- Local/ regional scale of threat + more fossil fuels will lead to a more global threat + impact
- Sizeable deposits that are easy to reach are rare and currently not economically viable to mine- covered by a vast array of moving ice, streams and glaciers
34
How is scientific research and tourism an impact to Antarctica?
- Improvements in technology mean that Antarctica is more accessible for tourism + scientific research
- Research is needed too help understand climate change better
- Antarctica is a place of spectacular unspoilt landscapes and remarkable wildlife that captivates people and motives people with large cash funds to go to Antarctica
35
Impact of scientific research on Antarctica:
- Mostly on the West side of Antarctica places by UK and USA
- Crucial to help finding ways to preserve + protect what is left of Antarctica, helps to predict future of the effects and what will happen
- Impact on ecosystem
36
Impact of tourism on Antarctica:
- Summer tourist season coincides with peak wildlife breeding periods which disrupts the animals way of life
- Concerns about the accidental introduction of invasive species such as the Mediterranean muscle
- High levels of pollution from the cruise liners
- Possibility of major collisions due to being in the most dangerous waters in the world- e.g. Canadian cruise ship struck ice near the South Shetland islands and sank. This led to no fatalities but 154 passengers and crew were left in sub freezing temperatures until they were rescued.
37
Stats on tourism in Antarctica:
- 2023-2024 season- 100,000 visitors- 40% increase on previous record
- Nov 2023 a Norwegian Boeing 787 landed on Antarctica
38
Degree of threat of scientific research + tourism on Antarctica:
- Local scale- tourism brings money, people are usually very rich + educated, feel they have a responsibility to keep the environment safe
- Guided by small groups to ensure they keep their environment safe
- Long term - more tech may increase amount of tourism
39
What is mitigation?
Any actions, strategies measures or projects undertaken to offset known detrimental impacts of a process
40
What is resilience?
The degree to which a population or environment can absorb an event or significant change and yet remain within the same state if organisation
i.e. its ability to cope with stress and recover
41
What is adaptation?
Any alteration or adjustment in the structure of function if an organism or system which enables it to survive better in challenging conditions
42
Scope of the Antarctic Treaty System (1959)?
- Covers the entire Antarctic Continent and surrounding Southern Ocean
- Signed by 58 countries, including major global powers
43
When was the ATS enforced?
1961
44
Purpose of the ATS:
To ensure Antarctica is used for peaceful purposes and scientific research, preventing military activity and territorial claims
45
Systems of the ATS for inspection and enforcement:
- Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meetings (ATCM)- governs the ATS
- The protocol on Environmental protection to the Antarctic Treaty (Madrid, 1991) known as the Madrid Protocol
- Two separate conventions dealing with the conservation of Antarctic Seals
- Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living resources
46
Degree of success of ATS:
- No military conflict
- Territorial claims frozen
- Science remains the primary activity
- Over 80 research stations
47
Challenges of the ATS:
- Increased tourism- 100 000 visitors in 2022-23
- Concerns over bioprospecting, and lack of enforcement mechanisms
48
Purpose of Madrid Protocol:
Provide comprehensive environmental protection by banning mineral resource exploitation and setting strict waste disposal regulations
49
What is the Madrid Protocol?
Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty
Enforced in 1998
50
Scope of Madrid Protocol:
- Applies to all signatories of the Antarctic Treaty
- Includes measure on waste management, protected areas, and environmental impact assessments
51
Success of Madrid Protocol:
- Mining is banned indefinitely (reviewable in 2048), strict waste management protocols have been implemented
- Over 72 protected areas have been established
52
Challenges of Madrid Protocol:
- Climate change is causing rapid ice loss (e.g. Thwaites Glacier retreating -1.3km per year)
- Enforcement depends on national governments
- Increased tourism and scientific activity bring risks of pollution and habitat disruption
53
Purpose of the International Whaling commission (IWC) and Whaling Moratorium (1982):
To regulate whaling and conserve whale populations by imposing a global ban on commercial whaling
54
Scope of IWC:
- Global but has particular relevance to the Southern Ocean
- Where, historically several whale species were historically overexploited
55
Success of IWC:
- Whale populations have rebounded, blue whale numbers have increase from fewer than 1000 to over 10 000
56
Challenges of IWC:
- Japan withdrew from IWC in 2019 and resumed commercial whaling
- Killed over 330 minke whales per year in Southern Ocean
- Still some loopholes in whaling by stating it is "scientific research"
57
Systems for inspection and enforcement in IWC:
Florianopolis Declaration
58
Purpose of the Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR, 1982):
To manage and conserve marine ecosystems in the Southern ocean, focusing on sustainable fisheries and ecosystem-based management
59
Scope of the CCAMLR:
Covers the Southern Ocean, particularly targeting species like krill and toothfish
60
Success of the CCAMLR:
- Several Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) established, including Ross Sea MPA (2016, 1.55 million km squared, world's largest)
- Strict quotas on krill and toothfish have helped to sustain populations
61
Challenges of the CCAMLR:
- Some nations, e.g. Russia and China oppose expanding MPAs
- Krill fishing increasing due to global demand for Omega-3 supplements
62
(NGO) Purpose of the Antarctic and Southern Ocean Coalition (ASOC) (founded in 1978):
- Advocate for stronger environmental protection in Antarctica, particularly in relation to tourism, fishing and climate change
63
Scope of ASOC:
Represents over 30 NGOs working globally within the Antarctic Treaty System as an observer
Focuses on Marine conservation, krill, fishing regulation and protecting Antarctic Wilderness
64
Success of ASOC:
- Key role in securing the 1991 Madrid Protocol and helped establish Ross Sea MPA
- Continues to push for new MPAs in the Weddell Sea and East Antarctica
65
Challenges of ASOC:
Lacks enforcement power, relies on diplomatic pressure and advocacy. resistance from some nations (e.g. China, Russia) slows progress on new conservation measures
66
(NGO) purpose of Scientific Committee on Antarctic research (SCAR) (founded 1958):
To coordinate international scientific research in Antarctica, providing independent advice on climate change, biodiversity and ecosystem changes
67
Scope of SCAR:
- Works with 40 countries
- Scientific guidelines for the ATS, CCAMLR and IPCC
- Covers climate science, glaciology, and biodiversity conservation
68
Success of SCAR:
- Influential in shaping climate policy by providing key data on Antarctic Ice loss (e.g. West Antarctic Ice sheet loosing -150 billion tonnes of ice per year)
- Research has contributes to stricter fisheries management under CCAMLR
68
Challenges of SCAR:
- Purely advisory- governments may ignore their recommendations
- Low funding for research due to political changes
69
(NGO) greenpeace purpose:
To push for full environmental protection of Antarctica, opposing mining, overfishing and excessive tourism
Campaigned to make Antarctica a "world park"
70
Greenpeace scope:
Operates globally but focuses on political lobbying and direct action
Conducts environmental monitoring missions in Antarctica
71
Success of greenpeace:
- Pressured governments to adopt the Madrid Protocol
- Exposed illegal whaling, contributing to Japan ending Southern Ocean Whaling in 2018
- Continues to campaign for marine protected areas
72
Challenges of greenpeace:
- No formal role in ATS
- Relies on activism rather than policy-making
- Opposition from pro-resource extraction countries (Russia, China) hinders further protection
- Climate change and krill fishing are major concerns
