brain cognition Flashcards
(154 cards)
1
Q
optogenetics
A
how photoreceptor proteins could control neuroactivity
2
Q
angiography
A
clinical imaging method used to evaluate the circulatory sytem in the brain nd diagnose disruptions in circulation
3
Q
cerebral vascular accidents
A
strokes, occur when blood flow in the brain is suddenly disrupted
4
Q
degenerative disorders
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huntingtons disease, progressive diseases like parkinsons and alzheimers
5
Q
double dissociation
A
whether two cognitive fucntions are independent of each other
6
Q
deep brain stimulation
A
electrodes are implanted in the basal ganglia. Continuous electrical signals that stimulate neural activity
7
Q
knockout procedures
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developing genetically altered animals
8
Q
computed tomography (CT or CAT)
A
allows for the reconstruction of threedimensional space from compressed two dimensional images.
9
Q
diffusion tensor imaging
A
can offer info about anatomical connectivity between regions of the anatomical structure of the axon tracts that form the brains white matter
10
Q
retinotopic
A
in vision topographic representations. cell activity within a retinotopic map correlates with the location of the stimulus
11
Q
multiunit recording
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recordings made in many neurons simultaneously
12
Q
EEG
A
when populations of neurons are actie together they produce electrical potentials large enough to be measued by non invasive electrodes that have been placed on the scalp
13
Q
event related potential
A
the evoked responses that are caused by an the variations in the brains electrical activity due to a external stimulus or response
14
Q
time frequency analysis
A
the fact that the amplitude (power) of a wave in different frequency regions varies over the course of processing
15
Q
MEG (magneto encephalography)
A
technique related to ERP. the electrical current associated with synaptic activity produces small magnetic fields that are perpendicular to the current
16
Q
electrocortogram
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similar to eeg except the electrodes are placed directly on the surface of the brain either outside the udra or beneath it
17
Q
MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)
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produce high resolution images of soft tissue. exploits magnetic properties of atoms that mae up organic tissue
18
Q
DTI (diffusion tensor imaging)
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measures the density and motion of water contained in the axons
19
Q
PET (positron emission tomorgraphy)
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measures local variations in cerebral blood flow that are correlated with mental acitivity. radioactive substance introduced into bloodstream
20
Q
voxels
A
regions of neurons
21
Q
BOLD blood oxygen level dependent effect
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the fmri detectors measure the ratio of oxygenated to deoxygenated hemoglobin.
22
Q
block design experiment
A
recorded neural activity is integrated over a ‘block’ of time during which thent either is pres enteda stimulus r performs a task
23
Q
event related design
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neural activation is compared between experimental and control scanning phases
24
Q
glial cells
A
nonneural cells that serve various functions in the nervous sytem. providing structural support and electrical inslation to neurons and modulating neuronal activity.
25
soma
cell membrane encases the cell body. contains metabolic machiery that maintains the neuron
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cytoplasm
salty intracellular fluid that is made up of combi of ions ; potassium sodium chloride and calcium and proteins
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dendrites
branching extensions of the neuron that receive inputs from other neurons
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spines
little knobs attached by small necks to the surface of the dendiretes where the dendrites receive inputs from other neurons
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axon
single process that extends from the cell body
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synapse
specialized structure where two neurons come into close contact so that chemical or electrical signals can be passed from one cell to the nect
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axon collaterals
can transmit signals to more than one cell
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nodes of ranvier
allong the length of the axons there are evenly spaced gaps in the myelin.
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neuronal signaling
neurons receive evluate and transmit information
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presynaptic
when their axon makes a connection onto other neurons
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postsynaptic
when other neurons make connection into their dendrites
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resting membrane potential
the voltage difference acros the neuronal membrane in the resting state is typically -70mV
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neuronal membrane
bilayer of fatty lipid molecules that seperates the cytoplasm from the extracellular millieu
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ion channels
proteins with a pore through their centers and they alow certain ions to flow down their concentradion gradients
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ion pumps
use energy to actively transport ions across the membrane against their concentration gradients ; from regions of low concentration to regions of higher concentration
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permeability
the extent to which a particular ion can cross the membrane through a given ion channel
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gated ion channels
ion channels that are capable of changing their permeability for a particular ion, they open or close based on changes in nearby transmembrane voltage, or as a response to chemical or physical stimuli
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nongated ion channels
ion channels that are unregulated and hence always allow the associated ion to pass through
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electrical gradient
because each K+ ion carries one unit of positive charge out of the neuron as it moves across the membrane.
44
electrochemical equillibriu
when the force of the concentration gradient pushing K out through the K+ channels is equal to the force of the electrical gradient driving K+ in.
45
excitatory postsynaptic potentials EPSPs
at synapses on the neuron dendrites cause ionic currents to flow in the volume of the cell body
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electrotonic conduction
passive current conduction. diminishes with distance from its origin (the synapse)
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action potential
rapid depolarization and repolarization of a small region in the membrane caused by the opening and closing of ion channels
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voltage gated ion channels
e a class of transmembrane proteins that form ion channels that are activated by changes in the electrical membrane potential near the channel.
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spike triggering zone
initiates the action potential in the axon hillock allng the axon
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depolarized membrane potential
membrane moves from its resting potential of about -70 mV to -55 mV (threshold)
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equillibrium potential
particular voltage at which there is no net flux of ions
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hyperpolarization stage
is a change in a cell's membrane potential that makes it more negative. ... Hyperpolarization is often caused by efflux of K+ (a cation) through K+ channels, or influx of Cl– (an anion) through Cl– channels
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refractory period
a period immediately following stimulation during which a nerve or muscle is unresponsive to further stimulation.
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saltatory conduction
is the propagation of action potentials along myelinated axons from one node of Ranvier to the next node, increasing the conduction velocity of action potentials
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synaptic cleft
gap between neurons at the synapse
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vesicles
is a large structure within a cell, or extracellular, consisting of liquid enclosed by a lipid bilayer.
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isopotential
have the same electrical potential
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glial cells
surround neurons and provide support for and insulation between them
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microglial cells
a specialised population of macrophages that are found in the central nervous system (CNS). They remove damaged neurons and infections and are important for maintaining the health of the CNS.
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neural circuits
groups of interconnected neurons that process specific kinds of info
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neural systems
for ex. the visual system is composed of many dfferent neural circuits organised in both hierarchical and parallel processing streams to enable vision
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peripheral nervous system
nerves and ganglia
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autonomic nervous system
involved in controlling the involuntary action of smooth muscles the heart and various glands
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sympathetic system
increases heart rate, prepares body for action
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parasympathetic system
slows heart rate, stimulates digestion, in general helps body with functions to maintainthe body
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central nervous system
brain and spinal cord
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nucleus
compact arrangememnt of nerve celll bodies and their connections ranging from hundreds to millions of neurons. located througout the brain and spinal cord
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cerebral cortex
outer layer of the brain
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gray matter
composed of neuronal cell bodies
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white matter
consists of axons and glial cells
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medulla
essential for life. providing sensory and motor innervtions to the face neck abdomen and throat. controls respirtion heart rate and arousal
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pons
connection between brain and cerebellum. important for some eye movements as wella s those of the face and mouth. responsible for REM
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cerebellum
clings to brainstem at level of the pons, critical for maintainging posture, walking and perforing coordinated movements
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hypothalamus
controls functions necessary for maintaining normal state of the body
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cytoarchitectonics
uses the microanatomy of cells and their organization to subdivide the cortex
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neocortex
cortex that contains six cortical layers or that passed through a developmental stage involving six cortical layers. includes areas like primary sensory and motor cortex and association cortex
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acuity
how good we are at distinguishing among stimuli within a sensory modality
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oval window
door to the fluid filled cochlea
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cochlea
critical auditory structure of inner ear
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tonotopy
the arrangement of the hair cells along the cochlear canal form a tonotopic map
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interaural time
difference in when a sound reaches each of the two ears
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optic chiasm
crossover place in the brain rom the optic nerves
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receptive field of the neuron
most visual neurons only respond when a stimulus is presented in a specific region of space
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retinotopic maps
topographic representations
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rhodopsin
light sensitive receptor protein, enables vision in low light conditions
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m pathway
magnocellular, parasol cells, initial analysis of movement of visual image
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p pathway
parvocellular, midget cells, analysis of fine strucuture and color vision
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ocular dominance columns
are stripes of neurons in the visual cortex of humans that respond preferentially to input from one eye or the other.
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amblyopia
lazy eye
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receptive field tuning
a neuron will only respond to a stimulus within its receptive field if that stimulus has certain characteristics
91
cortical column/hypercolumn
is a group of neurons in the cortex of the brain that can be successively penetrated by a probe inserted perpendicularly to the cortical surface, and which have nearly identical receptive fields
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view dependent frame of reference
people have a cornucopia of speciic representations in memory; we simply need to match a stimulus to a stored representation
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view invariant frame of reference
perceptual system extracts structural info about the components of an object and the relationship between these components
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repetition suppression effect
hypothesized to indicate increased neural efficiency ; the neural response to the stimulus is more efficient and perhaps faster when the pattern has been recently activated
95
central sulcus
divides the frontal lobe from the parietal lobe
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sylvian (lateral) fissure
seperates the temporal lobe from the frontal and parietal lobe
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insula
located between temporal and frontal lobe ad is an island of folded cortex hidden deep in the lateral sulcus
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prefrontal cortex
more complex aspects of planning, organizing, and executing behaviour tasks that require integration of info over time
99
parietal lobe
receives sensory info from the outside world, sensory info from within the body and info from memory and integrates it
100
thalamus
sensory info about touch pain temp sense and limb proprioception is received via receptor cells on the skin and converted to neuronal impulses that are conducted to the spinal cord and then to the somatosensory relays of the thalamus
101
somatotopy
the mapping of specific parts of the body to areas of the cortex
102
association cortex
portion of the neocortex that is neither sensory nor motor cortex . receives and integrates inputs from many cortical areas, language, abstract thinking
103
cognitive control
cognitiive processes that permit us to perform more complex aspects of behaviour
104
perseveration
patients may persist in a response even fter being told that it is incorrect
105
utilization behaviour
extreme dependency on prototypical responses for guiding behaviour
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goal oriented actions
based on the assessment of an expected reward or value and the knwledge that there is a causal relationship between the action and reward
107
habit
an action that is no longer under the control of a reward, but is stimulus driven
108
recency memory
the ability to organize and segregate the timing or order of events in memory
109
astrocytes
large and round forms which surround neurons, makes contact with blood. Blood brain barrier. CNS
110
microglial
come into play when tissue is damaged. devour and remove damaged cells in CNS
111
oligodendrocytes
structure which forms myelin. in peripheral nervous system
112
schwann cells
create myelin with wrapping their cellmembranes aroudn the axon. increases the speeds of action potentials
113
convergence
axons from the input neurons can originate from widely distributed origins / if a theoretical concept can be proven with many different neuroscientific techniques, then it is highly likely true
114
divergence
a single neuron can project to multiple target neurons in different regions
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dura matter
the outer membrante (thick) which has a rigid organization of neurons
116
commissures
when axons travel to the other hemisphere
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dorsal horn
contains sensory neurons and interneurons
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ventral horn
contains large motor neurons
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inferior
below another part
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superior
above another part
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proximal
located close to the point of origin or attachment
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distal
located more distant from the point of origin
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ipsilateral
on the same side of the body
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contralateral
on teh opposite side of the body
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coronal plane
plane that shows brain structures as seen from the front
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sagital plane
a plane that shows brain structures as seen fro the side
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horizontal plane
a plane that shows brian structure as seen from above
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superior colliculi
specialized for seeing
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inferior colliculi
specialized for hearing
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vestibulo
includes balance, coordination of eye movement while moving
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spino
includes poly sensory integration and flexible control of moving limbs
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neo
plannign of movement, higher mental functions and time perception
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lateral hypothalamus
stimulates hunger
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ventromedial hypothalamus
suppresses hunger
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internal transformations
sensory signals can activate a memory of a stimulus.
136
retino-cortical expansion
visual info from the central part of the visual field is projected on a bigger part of the primary visual cortex, in comparison the the peripheral visual fields
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achromatopsia
caused by lesions that encompass V4. report seeing colour as a bland palette of dirty shades of grey
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akinetopsia
selective loss of motion perception
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visual agnosia
when people see objects, but not make sense of them
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optic ataxia
people can recognize objects but cannot use visual info to guide their actions
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apperceptive agnosia
problems with object recognition regarding bjects with limited stimulus (outlines of objects or unusual perspective)
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integrative agnosia
problems with integrating features into parts or parts of an object into a whole
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associative agnosia
can perceive objects but cannot understand or assign meaning to the objects
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prosapognosia
impairments in face recognition
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phospholipid bilayer
cell membrane
146
ligand
excitatory neurotransmitter
147
spatial summation
epsp's and ipsp's from different locations happening at the same time summate to larger depolarizations
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temporal summation
epsp's arriving shortly after one another at the same location summate to larger depolarizations
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hodgkin-huxley cycle
the inflow of Na+ causes further opening of voltage gated Na+ channels, causing more depolarization, causing more channels to open
150
complementarity
precision in time, precision in space, one/many neurons measured, direct vs indirect measurements of the brain
151
high temporal resolution
precise in time
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low spatial resolution
imprecise in space
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graded potentials
small depolarisation/hyperpolarisations in membrane voltage
154
local field potentials
if a large number of neurons produces graded potentials at the same time
