Cognition 4 Flashcards
(209 cards)
1
Q
motor system
A
includes the components of the central and peripheral nervous system along with the muscles joint and bones that enable movement
2
Q
well defined problem
A
problem in which starting conditions, actions available and goals are all completely specified
3
Q
utility
A
is the subjective value of an option
4
Q
two system
A
view is that there are two modes of thought; system 1 and system 2
5
Q
torque
A
is a measure from physics that measures rotational force such as when muscles ap
ply a force for a limb to rotate about a joint centre
6
Q
thinking
A
process of mental explroation of possible acions and states of the world
7
Q
system 2
A
a hypothetical system that carreis out slow deliberate thinking
8
Q
system 1
A
is a hypothetical system that carries out rapid intuitive thinking
9
Q
subjective probability
A
is hw likely a person believes an outcome to be irrespective of the objective probability
10
Q
status quo bias
A
a tendency to prefer the current state of affairs
11
Q
state action space
A
is a representation of how problems can be transformed from starting state through intermediate states to the goal
12
Q
single attribute
A
decision problems involve alternatives that vary in only one dimension
13
Q
set
A
is a tendency to persist with one approach to a problem
14
Q
riskless
A
decisions involve choices where the outcomes of the choices are known with certainty
15
Q
risk seeking
A
is a preference for risky choices even when riskless alternatives of higher value are available
16
Q
risk aversion
A
is avoiding risky choices even when a higher expected value than riskless alternatives
17
Q
risk
A
a decision involves risk if there is a probability that one of the options could lead to negative outcomes for the decision maker
18
Q
restructuring
A
is changing how one represents a problem
19
Q
representativeness heuristic
A
involves juding frequency or probability of an event or object by how representative or typical it is of its category
20
Q
recurrent networks
A
are a type of artificial neural network with connections between units arranged so to obtain a cycle of activation. this design allows a temporal context to be designed into computation
21
Q
recognition primed decision
A
is expert knowledge based decision making in which cues in the situation are recognised as indicating particular actions
22
Q
reasoning
A
is the cognitive process of deriving new information from old information
23
Q
prospect theory
A
a decision theory stressing reltive gains and losses
24
Q
progress deepening
A
is searching a state-action space by using depth first search to a lmited depth. when depth limit is reached search backs up to start and repeats, avoiding previously eplored branches and so on until the whole space has been searched up to the initial deth limit. if a solution is not found, increase depth limit, and repeat until the goal is reached
25
problem space
is an abstract representation of possible states of a problem
26
problem
is a situation in which you have a goal but do nwt know how to achieve it
27
parallel processing
is the ability to divide thee process of solving a problem into multiple parts and to work simultaneously on each part
28
optimal control theory
is the ability to divide thee process of solving a problem into multiple parts and to work simultaneously on each part
29
normative approaches
attempt to establish ideal ways of deciding that will give the best decision possible. economists have tended to develop normative models
30
non-adversary problems
are problems in which the solver is dealing with inert problem materials with no rational component
31
neuroeconomics
the study of neural processes underlying economic decisions
32
naturalistic decision making
refers to making rela life decisions in the field
33
multi attribute decision problem
is a decision task in which the alternatives vary in many dimensions or aspects
34
motor systems
includes the components of the central and peripheral nervous systems aliong with the muscles joints and bones that enable movement
35
motor primitives
are the basis set of elemental movements that serve as building blocks for an animas repertoire of movements
36
mirror neurons
neurons with the special property that they reoresent both the sensory aspects of perceiving actions as well as motor aspects of how to produce the action
37
loss aversion
is a key idea of prospect theory that there is greater dislike of losing utility than liking for gainng the same degree of utility
38
knowledge rich problems
are problems that require extensive specialist knowledge
39
knowledge lean problems
are problems such as puzzles that do not require specialist knowledge
40
inverse problem
in vision is where there are more than one interpretation of the 3d world given the 2d image information
41
invariance
the principle that choices between alternatives should not be affected by how the options are described
42
interactive activation
a term used to describe the pattern of network activity generated bt excitatoy and inhibitory interactions of feature detectors and object representations
43
insight
is a restructuring of a problem that makes the solution obvious and understandable
44
incubation
a period in which a problem is set aside, it may be immediate, directly after presentation or 'delayed' after a period of conscious work
45
ill defined problem
is a prblem in which starting conditions or actions available or goals are not completely specified
46
ideomotor theory
relates how thinking abot the results of an action can give rise to producing the action
47
homologous
in biology means to have the corresponding psition, structure and possibly function. it is common to consider across species that anatomical parts are homologous. for brain regions this is important for using data obtained in say monkeys to predict relations n human brain
48
heuristic
a problem solving method that often finds a low effort solution but is not guaranteed to solve
49
goal-subgoal space
is a representation of how an overal problem gola can be broken down into subgoals and sub-subgoals
50
Gestalt approach
the theory proposes that the whole of an object or scene is more important than its individual parts.
51
geneplore
is a model for creative thinking which stresses the role of a generative and exploratory phase
52
functional fixity
is a difficulty in thinking of a novel use for a familiar object
53
framing
effects arise when irrelevant features of a situation affect the decisions that are made
54
forward models
are used to predict the relationship between actions and their consequences. given a motor command the forward model predicts the resulting behaviour of the body and the world
55
feeling of warmth
rating is a rating of how close the solver feels to prblem solution, taken at intervals during the solving process
56
expertise
the accumulated high level knowledge that allows outstanding performance in complex problem areas
57
expected value
the longterm average value of a repeated decision which is determined by the probability and size of the outcome. so if the chance of winning 100 euro in a gamble is 0.5, then the expected value is 50.
58
equilibrium point hypothesis
a theory of morot control that emphasizes how the problem of control can be simplified by taking into account muscle properties
59
endowment effect
is a tendency to over-value a possessed object and to require more money to sell it than to buy it in the first place
60
dynamical systems
aproach to motor contro emphasizes interaction between the body and the environment eand uses special mathematics that describe how systems behaviour changes over time
61
detour problems
are problems in which the hill climbing method does not work well, as the solver has to move away from the goal at some stage
62
depth first search
is searching a state-action space by generating one state only from each intermediate state
63
degrees of freedom
of a joint are the number of ways it can move.
64
decision making
is the cognitive process of choosing between alternative possible actions
65
critical incident analysis
is gaining information about naturalistic decision making by analysing detailed recalls of recent important decisions
66
creative synthesis task
is a task in which participants have to combine presented shapes to make novel interisting combinations
67
creative
in relation to a product is generally defined as novel to the producer of the product and valuable in some way, alternatively, that the product is novel and meets a goal
68
conjunction fallacy
is the mistaken belief that the conjunction of two events (a and b) is more likely than either of one a or b
69
common coding
is a theory of perception and action production which holds that both production and perception share certain representations of actions in the world
70
cognitive sandwich
describes the view that perception and action are like slices of bread that surround cognition as the filling of a sandwhich
71
breadth first search
searching a state-action space by generating all possible states from each intermediate state
72
brainstorming
is stimulating the production of unusual ideas, by stressing quantity as agianst quality and deferment of evaluation of ideas
73
base rate
of an event is the overall probability of the event in a population; so the base rte of engineers in the uk is the probability that a randomly selected person in the uk will be engineer
74
basal ganglia
are a group of neurons in the base of the forebrain that are connected to cortex and involved in action selection. Disorders of the basal ganglia are related to movement disorders such as parkinsons disease
75
availability heuristic
involves judging frequency or probability of events by hw easy it is to bring the events to mind
76
associative chain theory
is a behaviourists theory that explains how sequnces of action arise from linking together associatios between individual action components
77
apraxia
neurological condition typically resulting from brain damage where a person loses the ability to perform activities that they are physically able and willing to do
78
algorithm
a problem solving method that is guaranteed to solve but may do so only with high mental load
79
affect heuristic
involves substituting feelings (positive or negative) for target attributes in decision problems
80
adversary problems
are problems in which the solver has to deal with a rational opponent as in board games
81
reasoning
is the cognitive process of deriving new info from old info
82
deductive reasoning
drawing logically necessary conclusions from given information
83
inductive reasoning
process of inferring probable conclusions from given information
84
premises
statements assumed to be true from which conclusions are drwan
85
valid
arguments are those in which the conclusions must be true if the premises are true
86
propositional reasoning
reasoning about statements connected by logical relations such as 'and' 'or' 'not' 'if'
87
syllogistic reasoning
is reasoning about groups/sets using statements connected by logical realations of 'some' 'none' 'all' and 'some not'
88
inference rules
are rules for reaching a conclusion given a particular pattern of propositions modus ponens which states that given if p then q and not q we can infer not p
89
mental models approach
the view that people tackle logical reasoning problems by forming mental representations of possible states of the world and draw inferences from those representations
90
atmosphere effect
a tendency to draw conclusions in syllogisms that are over influenced by the form of the premises rather than the logic of the argument
91
four figures of syllogism
are the four possible layout of terms which give four syllogistic figures
92
figural bias
the tendency to be influenced by the order in which the information is presented in the premises when attempting to solve a syllogistic reasoning problem.
93
belief bias
a tendency to accept invalid but believable conclusions and to reject valid but unbelievable conclusions to arguments
94
hypothesis testing
is assessing hypotheses for truth/falsity against data
95
hypothesis generation
deriving possible hypotheses from data for later testing
96
hypothetico-deductive reasoning
is a form of inductive reasoning in which a hypothesis is tested by deducing necessary consequences of the hypothesis and determining whether the consequences are true (supporting the hypothesis) or false disconfirming or falsifying the hypothesis)
97
matching bias
the four card task, is choosing the cards mention in the rule
98
social contract
theory proposes that rules expressing payment of costs for privileges will be easily solved in 4 card tasks as the correct choices would uncover cheating
99
deontic rules
are rules regarding obligations and typically involve terms such as 'should' 'must' 'ought' 'may' and so on
100
confirmation bias
in hypothesis testing, is a tendency to seek out and attend only infomration consistent with the hypothesis while ignoring falsifying information
101
syntax
refers to the rules governing the ways words can be combined to create meaningful sentences
102
content words
are words that provide meaning to the sentence ; these contrast with function words which do the grammatical work of the sentence
103
language production
refers to a number of processes by which we convert a thought into language input, in the form of speech , sign language or writing
104
social cognition
refers to the ways in which poeple make sense of htemselves and others in order to function effectively ina social world
105
conceptually driven
or top-down processes reflect the influence of higher order cognitive processes sucha s thoughts, beliefs and expectations
106
communication
refers to any means by which info is shared
107
mental lexicon
our store of knowledge about words and their uses
108
linguistic universals
are linguistic features said to be found in all languages
109
tonal languages
use changes in tone to alter the meaning of the word
110
functional reference
refers to the use by animals of a specific call to stand for a specific object or threat
111
phones
the basic speech sounds
112
phonectic
study of speech soudns
113
phoneme
smallest meaningful sound unit within language
114
allophones
are phonetic variants of the same phoneme
115
phonotactic rules
stipulate which combinations of sounds are permitted in a language
116
morphemes
the meaning units of language
117
morphology
the level of linguistic analysis concerned with morphemes and their role within words
118
free morpheme
a morpheme that can stand alone as a word
119
bound morpheme
a morpheme that cannot form word on its own, but forms a word when attached to free morpheme
120
function words
provide grammatical structure that shows how content words relate to each other within a sentence
121
semantics
study of meaning
122
productive of language
refers to the ability to generate novel utterances
123
phrase
a group of words referring to a particular idea
124
slang
describes an informal pattern of speech that is considered to be non-standard
125
subject
of a sentence is the word or words that gives what the sentence is about or performs the action
126
object
of a sentence is the word or words that receives the actions or is acted on by the subject of the sentence
127
recursion
refers to the ability to extend sentences infinitely by embedding phrases within sentences
128
discourse
refers to multisentence speech and includes dialogue, conversation and narrative
129
pragmatics
refers to understanding of the communicative functions of language and the conventions that govern language use
130
aphasia
term given to a group of speech disorders that occur following brain injury
131
disfluency
hesitation or disruption to the normal fluency of speech. by contrast, the term 'dysfluency' is used to refer to an abnormal disruption to fluency such as following brain damage.
132
clause
a part of a sentence containing a subject and verb
133
paraphraxes
slips of the tongue or other actions originally thought to reflect unconscious motives
134
lexical bias
refers to tendency for phonological speech errors to result in real words
135
feeling of knowing
is a subjective sense of knowing that we know a word, and is an example of meta-memory our knowledge about the contents of our memories
136
lemma
an abstract word form that contains syntactic and semantic information about the word
137
lexeme
the basic lexical units that gives the word morpho-phonoligical properties
138
non-plan internal errors
occur when the intrusion is external to the planned content of the utterance
139
neurolinguistics
the study of the relationship of brain function to language processing
140
lateralization of function
refers to the asymmetric represenation of congitive function in the cerebral hemispheres of humans and higher primates
141
dichotic listening task
one where different stimuli are presented to each ear
142
transcranial magnetic stimulation
a non-invasive method of temporarily exciting or inhibiting cortical areas
143
electrocortical stimulation
of the surface of the cortex allows a surgeon to locate, and avoid damage to, brain regions associated with a particular cognitive function
144
wernicke-geschwind model
a simplified model of language function used as the basis for classifying aphasia disorders
145
crossed aphasia
refers to the language dysfunction following right hemisphere damage in a right-handed individual
146
broca's aphasia
an acquired language disorder characterized by non-fluent speech, reduced speech output and problems with grammar processing
147
global aphasia
an acquired language disorder involving extreme impairment of language function
148
non-fluent aphasia
when the patients speech output is reduced laboured or absent
149
wernicke's aphasia
a fluent aphasia, characterized by fluent but meaningless output and repetition erros
150
fluent aphasia
when the patients speech is fluent but not meaningful
151
conduction aphasia
when the patient has a specific difficulty affecting the repetition of speech
152
anomic aphasia
when the patient has a specific difficulty with word retrieval
153
prosody
refers to the rhythm, intonation and stress patterns in speech
154
invariance problem
reflects the variation in the production of speech sounds across speech contexts
155
co-articulation
tendency for a speech sound to be influenced by sounds preceding or following it
156
segmentation problem
refers to detection of distinct words in what is a continuous string of speech sounds
157
phonotactic constraints
describe the language specific sound goupings that occur in a language
158
onset
of a word is the initial phoneme or phonemes. the rime follows the onset
159
slips of the ear
occur when we misperceive a word or phrase in speech
160
categorical perception
the perception of stimuli on a sensory continuum as falling into distinct categories
161
voicing
when speech sounds are produced while the vocal cords are vibrating
162
right ear advantage
for speech sounds refers to the finding that language sounds are processed more efficiently when presented to the right ear compared to the left
163
phoneme restoration effect
describes the tendency to hear a complete word even when a phoneme has been removed from the input
164
mcgurk effect
a perceptual illusion that illustrates the interplay of visual and auditory processing speech perception
165
lexical decision task
a task where participants are presented with a letter string and they must decide whether or not it is a word
166
localist representation
where a single unit represents a particular concept
167
lexical access
the process by which we access stored knowledge about words
168
word naming tasks
require participants to name a word while repsonse time is measured
169
sentence verification tasks
present a sentence frame with a target word, and the participant must decide if the word fits in the frame
170
open class words
content words such as nouns verbs and adjectivesn new words can be added to this class of words
171
closed class words
such as articles prepositions remain stable over time and are not added to
172
repetition priming
refers to the finding that repeated exposure to a word leads to faster responses in a lexical decision task
173
homographs
words with the same spelling but more than one meaning and pronunciation
174
parsing
the process by which we assign a syntactic struccture to a sentence
175
phrase structure tree
a graphic representation of the syntactic structure of a sentence
176
garden path sentence
grammatically correct but ambiguous sentence that biases the readers initial parsing
177
minimal attachment
introduces new items into the phrase structure using as few syntactic nodes as possible
178
late closure
attaches incoming material to the phrase that is currently being processed
179
transparant or shallow orthography
uses a one to one correspondence between the letters and sounds
180
opaque or orthographically deep
languages are those where the relationship between letters and sounds is more complex
181
word superiority effect
refers to the finding that a target letterw ithin a letter string is detected more readily when the string forms a word
182
saccades
fast movements of the eye made when reading or scanning an image
183
grapheme to phoneme conversion
route allows us to sound out words based on letter sound correspondences
184
lexical or direct route
to reading involves the selection of a word from the lexicon
185
non semantic reading
a pattern of reading deficit whereby the patient can read an irregular word (which cannot be sounded out) and yet cannot access its meaning
186
pure word defness
a deficit affecting the ability to recognize speech sounds while comprehension of non speech sounds remains intact
187
pure word meaning deafness
the patient can repeat back the word but cannot understand it
188
acquired dyslexia
refers to reading difficulties following brain injury
189
surface dyslexia
deficit in the reading or irregular words, while the reading of regular words is spared
190
phonological dyslexia
affects non-word reading but real words can be read
191
skin conductance
reflects changes in the skins ability to conduct electricity in the presence of an emotion eliciting stimulus
192
amygdala
linked to fear
193
insula
linked with disgust, implicated in aspects of emotion cognition and action
194
limbic system
consists of the thalamus hypothalamus hippocampus and amygdala
195
default network
network of brain regions that is active when a person is not focused on the external environment
196
salience network
involved in monitoring the external and internal environments to allow detection of salient stimuli
197
display rules
social conventions governing how when and with whom emotions may be expressed
198
autonomic nervous system
part of the peripheral nervous syte and regulates internal organs
199
central nervous system
consists of the brain and spinal cord
200
facial feedback hypothesis
proposes that feedback from the facial muscles can influence emotional state
201
appraisal theories
have in common the assertion that emotions result from our interpretations of or reactions to events
202
attentional bias
refers to the tendency for emotional stimuli to capture or draw attention
203
tunnel memory
refers to the enhancement of memory of central details with reduced memory of peripheral details
204
network models
of memory treat memories as items related in a network which can affect each other through activation
205
state dependent memory
refers to the facilitation of memory when the mental or physiological state at encoding and retrieval matches
206
thought congruity
the tendency for thoughts and judgmenet to be consistent with mood state
207
processing efficiency theory
performance is impaired due to fear of failure costing so much energy that it can not be spend on carrying out the task
208
conscious processing hypothesis
performance is impaired because fear of failure disturbs automatic processes
209
omission bias
people state that they would feel more responsible for deaths caused by their actions than by their omission
