developmental psychology Flashcards
(267 cards)
1
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maturational theory of Gesell
A
biologically directed maturation; the same developmental patterns independent of environmental input
2
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cephalocaudal trend
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from head to foot
3
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proximodistal trend
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from centre of body to peripheral
4
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McGraw- motor development
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environment can shape motor development, twin study extra training in swimming skating and climbing
5
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dynamic systems theory
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development is a complex interaction between properties of the system and the environment
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system
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collection of component that are interrelated (body, family)
7
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dynamic system
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collection of components that influence each other. describes how a state changes another state over time, self-organisation
8
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Esther thelen Dynamic system theory
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motor development is shaped by central nervous system, motor skills and environment
9
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behaviourism child development
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child is passive in its development, environment shapes development
10
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law of recency
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likelihood of repetition of recent acquired behaviour is higher
11
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law of exercise
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practice strengthens stimulus response connections
12
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constructivism
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acquiring knowledge and skills is the result of thinking big children themselves. children learn by connecting new information to what they already know (piagets theory and information processing approach)
13
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assimilation
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fit knowledge into preexisting schemes
14
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accommodation
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modify preexisting schemes
15
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equilibration
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schemes are in balance
16
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information processing theory
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individuals process info similar to a computer. to understand behaviour we need to understand the mental processes underlying the association between init and output
17
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social constructivism
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social environment is a critical guide factor in development
18
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zone of proximal development
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skills that are just a bit too difficult but can be learned with help
19
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scaffolding
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adopt instruction to the level of the child
20
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cognitive adaptations
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children developing cognitive awareness of the world as a result they become better able to understand their world
21
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functional invariants
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processes that o not chang during development, such as accommodation and assimilation
22
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sensorimotor stage
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first stage, though is based primarily on perception and action and internalised thinking is absent. from birth to 2 yrs
23
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preoperational stage
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egocentrism, animism, contraption. under the age of 7 are unable to coordinate aspects of problems in order to solve them
24
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concrete operations stage
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conservation and seriation understood, third stage, reasoning is said to become more logical, systematic and rational in its application to concrete objects
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formal operations stage
fourth stage, in which the individual acquires the capacity for abstract scientific thought, this includes ability to theorise about impossible events and items
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animism
children tend to attribute life like qualities to inanimate objects
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centration
the focusing or centring of attention on one aspect of a situation to the exclusion of others
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bottom up
building complex systems of knowledge from simpler origins
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top down
the state of the system is specified or presumed, and then working to discover its components and their development
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connectionism
in which computers are programmed to stimulate the action of the brain and nerve cells
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introspectionism
in which observers were ask to reflect on their thoughts feelings and perceptions
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law of effect
hates that he likelihood of n action being repeated is increased if it leads to a pleasant outcome, and decreased if it leads to an unpleasant outcome
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reductionism
the claim of complex behaviours and skills such as language and problem solving are formed from simpler processes, such as neural activity and conditioning
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precocial species
those species of animals where the young are able to locomotive almost immediately after birth or hatching
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monotropy
the view that the infant has a basic need to form an attachment with one significant person
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oedipus complex
young boy develops sexual feelings toward his mother but realises that his father is a major competitor for her sexual affections
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castration complex
where the young boy fears castration at the hands of his father
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electra complex
where little girls develop feelings toward their father and fear retribution at the hands of their mother
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reaction formation
the individual may react often unconsciously to negative aspects of their personality
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humanistic theory
emphasises that humans have free will and are motivated to fulfil their potential
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zygote
fertalization to week 2
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embryo
week 2 to week 12
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foetus
week 12 to birth
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morula
(day 3) ball of 16 cells cell differentiation starts
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blastula
day 4-7, cavity arises, embryo arises out of inner cells implantation in uterus
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gastrulation
week 2 the formation of the 3 germ layers by migration and differentiation of blastula cells
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ectoderm
skin hair and nervous sytem
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mesoderm
muscles and bones
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endoderm
most other organs
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neurulation
week 3 the formation of the neural plate, neural groove and neural tube from the ectoderm
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neurogenesis
birth of new neurons, differentiation and migration of cells from neural tube
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complete little human, organogenesis is finished in week..
8
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rating reflex
first moving away from touch later towards it
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vestibular apparatus
(in the inner ear) muscle tension, hearing vision and feeling
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kangaroo method
skin to skin contact, baby moves together with parent
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critical period
per in which specific development is optimal, system is vulnerable for lesions
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crossectional design
not the same children, measuring children at different ages
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constructivism, development of new perceptual abilities through interaction of
biological maturation and the child actively exploring the external world
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ehtology
approach which empasizes the evolutionary origins of many behaviour that are important for survival
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mechanism
(causation) "how does this behaviour occur in an individual?"
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adaptive value
(function) why is this behaviour adaptive for the species?
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ontogeny
(development) how does this behaviour arise in an individual?
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phylogeny
(evolution) how does this behaviour arise in the species?
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id
motions, impulses, desires
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ego
mediation between reality and desire
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superego
the conscious
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insecure resistant
child keeps crying when caregiver comes back, resisting comfort
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ambivalent
they seek contact with caregiver, but also hit and kick caregiver
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insecure disorganized
do not know how to react, seem to be absent minded, repeating behaviour, not really playing and exploring
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genetic epistemology (Piaget)
study of formation (genesis) of knowledge and how we know what we know (epistemology)
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assimilation
integrating of new experiences into preexisting schemes
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accommodation
modification of preexisting schemes in order to adapt to the environment
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reflexive schemes
use of innate reflexes
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primary circular reactions (1-4 m)
focused on own body not external world, repetitive behaviour
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secondary circular reactions
focused on external world, repetitive behaviour (grasping, dropping object)
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coordination of secondary chemes
goal directed behaviour, combining two schemes , children still make a not b error
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A not B error occurs probably because
incomplete object permanence, mental representation present but no response perseveration
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tertiary circular reactions
12 to 18 months, exploring new possibilities of objects, repetitive behaviour, no longer a not b error
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mental representations/ beginning of thought
invention of new means through mental combination (trial and error no longer necessary), object permanence is fully understood
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altirical species
in which the young are incapable of moving around on their own and are dependent on their parents for food and safety
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precocial species
in which the young are physically mobile and able from the moment of birth or hatching
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nativism
view that many skills or abilities are native or hard wired into the brain at birth, the result of genetic inheritance
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empiricism
view that humans are not born with built in core knowledge or mental content and that all knowledge results from learning and experience
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standardised test
test os a psych construct such as personality
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genetic determinism
the hypothesis that people come who they are as a consequence of their genetic inheritance
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familial resemblance
the resemblance between relatives whose genetic relationship to each other is known
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missing heritability
the failure to find any of the genes associated with cognitive abilities
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environmental drift
changes in developmental functions that result from and are in the direction of changing environments
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flynn effect
an increase in the average intelligence test scores over generations
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ravens progressive matrices
a culture free non verbal intelligence test with items arranged in order of difficulty
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neonate
infant less than a month old
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apoptosis
programmed cell death
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neural plate
thickening of endoderm cells that will give rise to the brain
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neural tube
a hollow structure in the embryo that gives rise to the brain and spinal column
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chemosensory system
encompasses both the gustatory (taste) and olfactory (smell) senses
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colostrum
the breast fluid that preceded true milk. rich in minerals and antibodies
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transnatal learning
learning that occurs during the prenatal period which is remembered during the postnatal period
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perinatal
the period just before and after birth
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dna methylation
proces with an important role in gene regulation, consisting of the addition of methyl groups to dna
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developmental programming
the hypothesis that prenatal conditions have detrimental effects on health into adulthood
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ultradian rhythm
rhythms or cycles that repeat in less than 24 hour period
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maturation
aspects of development that are largely under genetic control and hence largely uninfluenced by environmental factors
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paradigm
pattern or sample, the term is now used to a theoretical or philosophical framework in any scientific discipline
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organismic world view
the idea that people are inherently active and continually interacting with the environment
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mechanistic world view
the idea that a person can be represented as being like am machine, which is passive until stimulated by the environment
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cohort
group of people who were raised in the same environment or who share certain demographic characteristics
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micro genetic method
method that examines change as it occurs and involves individual children being tested, typically over a short period d of time so that the density of observations is high compared with the typical longitudinal study
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marker task
method designed to elicit a behaviour with a known neural basis
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catharsis hypothesis
the argument that watching aggressive tendencies in others will reduce your own feelings of agression
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discontinuous (step) function
where development takes place in a series of stages, where each new stage appears to be qualitatively different from the preceding (and following) stages
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u shaped functions
behaviour where ability is very good, then decreases and the increases again. or other way around
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visual acuity
the ability to make fine discriminations between the elements in the visual array
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visual accommodation
the ability to focus on objects irrespective of their distance form the eye
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subjective contour
when only parts of an object are presented, the remaining contours are filled in in order that the complete shape can be perceived
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intonation
the rhythmic pattern of speech
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violation of expectation technique
infants are shown an event and are then shown two new events, one of which is consistent with everyday reality (possible) and the other inconsistent (impossible). infants look longer at impossible event
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subitising
ability to perceive directly the number of items without consciously counting them or using another form of calculation
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response perseveration
repeating a preciously learned response usually when it is no longer appropriate
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mind mindedness
caregivers who are bale to read their infants signals appropriately.
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autonomous attachment
adults who give coherent web balanced account of their attachment experiences. showing valuing of close personal relationships
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dismissing attachment
adults who deny the importance of attachment experiences and cannot recall childhood events and emotions
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preoccupied attachment
adults who are unable to move on from their childhood experiences
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unresolved attachment
adults who have not been able to resolve feelings relating to the death of a loved one or trauma
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epistemology
study of origins of knowledge and how we know what we know
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equilibration
a state in which children schemes are in balance and are undisturbed by conflict
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symbolic function substag
children acquire the ability to mentally represent objects that are not physically present
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intuitive substage
(from 4-7) when children begin to classify order and quantify in a more systematic manner
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rational imitation
where infants produce an action that they think the adult intended to do, rather than what the adult actually did
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seriation task
putting items in a coherent or logical order
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transitive inference
relation between two or more premises, that leads to an inference that is logically necessary
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class inclusion
the ability to coordinate and reason about parts and wholes simultaneously in recognising relations between classes and subclasses
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realism
believing that things are as they appear and not what they might (saying that a sponge that looks like a rock really is a rock)
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overlapping waves
in which at any one time the child has a number of strategies that can be used to solve problems. over time less efficient strategies are replaced by more effective ones
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guided participation
children ability to learn from interaction with others
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ontogenesis
development of the individual
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fylogenesis
development of the species
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s structure
surface structure , actual spoken sentence (different in different languages
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d structure
deep structure, abstract representation of a sentence (the same in different languages)
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overregularisation
when a previously learned rule is applied in the wrong situation 'thinked' instead of 'thought'. children overregularize applying syntactic rules (d structures (I goed to the cinema, I seed my friends)
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Chomsky's poverty of the stimulus argument
parents repeat ungrammatical sentences, parents even reinforce ungrammatical sentences
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pragmatic system
turn taking
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phonological system
speech perception and production
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syntactic system
understanding and producing grammar
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semantic system
understanding the meaning of words
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reflexive vocalisations
birth to 2 months, crying
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cooing and laughing
2 to 4 months, laughing
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babbling and vocal play
4-6 months, producing phonemes
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canonical babblin
start of language, 6-10 months,
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modulated babbling
10 months on, seem to talk but not understandable.
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one word period
10-18 months
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two words period
18-24 months, after 24 months ; rapid improvement of syntax
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proto conversations
interaction sbetween adults and infants in which the adults tend to vocals when the infants are not vocalising, or after the infant has finished vocalizing
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proto-imperative
occurs when infants point to an object and then alternate thei race between the object and the adult until they obtain the desired object
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proto declarative
occurs when infants use pointing or looking to direct an adults attention toward the object
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speech stream
the undifferentiated series of words that are produced when we communicate
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phoneme
smallest unit of speech that can affect meaning
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categorical perception
where perceptually discriminable stimuli are treated as belonging to the same category. for ex. in a foreign language you are less able to hear certain differences between spoken words properly while someone from its native language can do this easily
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reflexive vocalisations
the first sounds reduced by infants incl cries coughs burps and sneezes
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canonical
the usual normal and natural state of things. canonical babbling refers to babbling sounds made by infants around 6-10 months, when vowels and consonants are combined in such a way the they sound like words
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manual babbling
found in deaf children
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modulated babbling
final period of babbling and language play, appears around 10 months on and is characterised by a variety of sound combinations, stress and intonation patterns and overlap Sith the beginning of meaningful speech
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syntax
manner in which words and parts of words are related to ne another to produce grammatical sentences
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s structure
syntax of a sentence. can have more than one meaning
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d strucutre
abstract representation of a sentence, or the actual meaning that the sentence is trying to convey
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overgeneralisation
create a new verb by adding the suffix '-ing' ' I am balareening.'
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comprehension
the language children can understand, distinguished from production
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overextension
extending the meaning of a word too broadly,
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underextension
extending the meaning of a word to too few instances
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semantic system
a system that categorises words in relation to their meaning
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cnceptual shift
a large qualitative change in an individuals cognitive processes
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representational ability
the ability to form a mental representation of an event or an object
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performance limitations
limitations that are associated with the challenges presented by the task being ask to that their performance may not reflect their underlying competence
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modularity
the view that we have separate modules for different abilities, face perception, understanding minds, numerical abilities
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cross-cultural study
study which aims to examine differences that arise purely from culture
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wings triad of impairments
impairments of social relationships, communication and imagination characteristic of autistic behaviour
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orthography
writing system. used to describe any aspect of print or spelling
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morpheme
unit of meaning
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mora
rhythmic unit in languages like japan sees that can be either a syllable or part of a syllable.
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syllable
the smallest unit of a word whose pronunciation forms a rhythmic break when spoken
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phonological skills
ability to detect and manipulate sounds at the phonetic syllabic and intra syllabic levels
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intrasyllabic units
unit fo speech that are smaller than syllables but larger than phonemes. onset and rime are two examples
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onset
onset of a syllable is the consonant the 'h' in 'hat'
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rime
the vowel sound of a syllable plus any consonants that follow
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letter sound associations
where one letter represents one sound or phoneme
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pseudo words
none existent but pronounceable non word
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morph-phonemic
description of orthographies in which there are regular relationships between letters or groups of letters and morphemes as well as sounds
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genitive
possessive word, for ex the apostrophe 's in the boy's jumper indicates that the jumper belongs to the boy
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inflectional morphemes
affixes whose presence and absence provide essential info about words. bijv bij meervoud
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cardinality
the numerical principle that states that any set of items with a particular number is equal in unity to any other set with the same number of items in it
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ordinality
the numerical principle that states that numbers come in an order scale of magnitude
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one-to-one principle
the principle that when counting. set of objects each object must be counted once and one only
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stable order principle
the principle that number words must be produced in a set order
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heteronomous moralitity
the first stage of moral reasoning in which children believe that right and wrong are determined by powerful adult figures
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instrumental morality
the second stage, individuals become aware that other people have intentions and desires and that there re two sides to every argument
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interpersonal normative morality
the third stage, referred to as good boy/girl orientation. individuals seek to be viewed as good and feel guilt when it is likely that others will condemn their behaviour
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social system morality
law and orientation fourth stage, individuals recognise that all members of society have intentions and pursue goals, but they understand that rules and laws are necessary in order for society to function and to prevent anarchy
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human rights and social welfare morality
final stage of moral judgement, social contract orientation stage. individuals who have reached this stage make use of ethical principals to guide moral judgments
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attribution
the belief one holds as to why people carry out a particular action or behaviour
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encoding with hypothesis
different info about faces is represented in memory by children at different ages. suggested that young children rely on info about individual features in recognising faces whereas older children and adults use info about the configuration of the features
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features processing
tendency to process the separate features of the face, as opposed to perceiving the relationship between parts
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configural processing
processing that pays particular attention to the overall layout of individual features
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crystallised intelligence
the store of info, skills and strategies acquired through education and prior experience, remains stable when waging
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deductive reasoning
drawing specific conclusions from general premises
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inductive reasoning
creating a general principle or conclusion from specific examples, that is drawing a general conclusion from specific premises
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syllogism
comprises two statements and a conclusion that is derived from these previous statements
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analogical reasoning
resolving a problem by comparing it to a similar problem that has been solved previously
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second order analogy
an analogy that requires the use of crystallised intelligence. in order to make the connections, one must be able to derive a relationship that is not inherent within the anology
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interpropositional thinking
where the individual is able to relate one or more parts of a proposition to another part to arrive at a solution to a problem
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intrapropositional thinking
the thought of the child in piagets concrete operations stage of development, which includes concrete content rather than abstract symbols.
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hypothetic-deductive reasoning
the ability to develop theories in an attempt to explain certain phenomena, generate hypotheses based on the theories, and systematically devise tests to confirm or refute these hypothese
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combinatory thought
taking more than one factor into consideration
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domain-specific
knowledge that can only be applied to specific situations that fall within the same domain
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intuitive scientists
the idea that we are all capable of constructing common sense theories to explain how the world works, and are able to conduct 'experiments' to test them
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sociocognitive conflict
(cognitive) conflict that arises as a result of a social interaction, two peers having a different understanding of a math problem
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cognitive conflict
arises when there are two or more competing solutions to a situation or problem
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peer facilitation effects
pairing of two children can have a positive impact on children later individual performance
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intermental plane
concerning knowledge that is possessed between people
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intramental plane
concerning knowledge that has been internalised an is possessed by the individual
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intergenerational cycle of difficulties
the various implicit and explicit non-verbal and verbal ways parents communicate their dramatic experiennes and there experiences of shared life events
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risk accumilation
the way in which multiple risk factors have a cumulative effect on child outcomes
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cumulative risk theory
the sum of risk factors rather than any single risk is what leads to dysfunction because it overwhelms the adaptive capacities of the individual
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risk specificity
the specific characteristics of an individual risk factor, both in terms of its specific effect and in terms of how init it interacts with specific child outcomes
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moderator (interactive) effects model
models based on interactive relationship between protective/vulnerabiillty factor and risk factors
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main effects model
models of resilience in which single factors are identified as determining whether a given child exposed to a risk has a good or a poor outcome
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mediator effects models
models that explore the role of intervening or intermediate variables on the effects of risks
226
retributive justice
direct sanctions against bullies that are intended to reduce the incidence of bullying
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restorative justice
range of practices which focus on the offender or bullying child being made aware of the victims feelings and the harm they have caused, and making some agreed reperation
228
lexical development
development of vocabulary
229
atypical trajectory
a sequence of development that departs from the typical sequence
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amniocentesis
medical procedure used in prenatal diagnosis o chromosomal abnormalities and fatal infections
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executive function of autism
view that autism is due to a deficit in executive function (inappropriate responses etc)
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central coherence hypothesis of autism
the view that autism is due to lack of central coherence, which is reflected in the tendency to process info piecemeal rather than to integrate it
233
microsystem
individual child, their characteristics and the settings where interpersonal relationship ,relevant at different points in the lifespan take place
234
mesosystem
relationship between different Microsystems, the relation between school and family, peers and religious activity, neighbourhood and health and so on
235
exosystem
the variety of influences like the mass media, neighbours and family friends
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macrosystem
refers to cultural level of influence
237
chronosystem
refers to sociocultural events over the life course
238
vygotsky
idea that the social environment plays an important role in the cognitive development of a child
239
piaget
sees children as active thinkers who interact with the environment , thinks of development in stages
240
ainsworth
theory concerning attachment types
241
main and Solomon fourth attachment style
insecure disorganised
242
false beliefs test used to
used to assess whether children can empathize with other people's thoughts. To successfully complete these tests, a child must be able to empathize with the thoughts of another person, because the information that is provided to the child differs from the information that is provided to another person, children pass it when they're about 4
243
language production, babies
can already make controlled sounds at 4-6 months
244
vertical decalage
Piaget, this is where the child has a level of understanding at one level (perhaps level of action) that has to be reconstructed at a later age at a different stage or level of undershtanding (perhaps level of thought)
245
horizontal decalage
non synchronous development of children on Piaget tasks (cases in which children may succeed on conservation may succeed on conservation of number tasks but not on conservation of continuous quantity
246
mentalizing network
mPFC, temporal parietal junction, 'what does the other think? recognise social ability in others', keeps growing as we age
247
amygdala network
recognition and evaluation of emotional and social stimuli, increased response to emotional pictures in adolescents, is spared when getting older, but affected with people who have AD
248
social brain consists of
amygdala network, mirror network, empathy network and mentalizing network
249
fluid intelligence
the ability to store and manipulate new info, get influenced when aging
250
hippocampus
shows large age related changes, role is to form vivid and detailed memories
251
alzheimers disease
episodic, working memory and executive functions impaired, semantic (world knowledge) somewhat spared (with mild AD)
252
psychoanalysis
view that much of our behaviour is determined by unconscious factors (Freud)
253
microgenetic method
method that examines change as it occurs and involves individual children being tested repeatedly, typically over a short period of time so that the density of observations is high compared with the typical longitudinal study
254
equifinality
mulitple risk factors can lead to the same problem
255
multifinality
risk factor can have multiple effects
256
heritability
percentage of variance in a trait that can be explained by genetic differences between individuals
257
erikson theory
psychosocial stages, social conflict theory
258
statistical learning
(ex. of a general learning mechanism (non-specific to language) use of transitional probabilities in word segmentation
259
concurrence asusmption (new structure of thinking)
simultaneously in different domains
260
abruptness assumption ( new structure of thinking )
sudden disconunous shift
261
empathy network
amygdala orbitofrontal cortex anterior ínsula. feeling what other people feel
262
mirror network
recognition of other peoples actions planning own actions
263
truancy
children who don't go to school
264
school anxiety
fear to go to school
265
risk focused programmes
intervention programmes that attempt to reduce risk exposure
266
asset-focused programmes
attempt to directly provide higher quality and or quantity of assets in children life
267
process-oriented programmes
programmes that attempt to improve the most important adaptational systems for children such as key relationship, intellectual functioning and self-regulation systems
