brain learning and motivation: neural communications

Question 1

typical neuron structure

Answer 1

neutrons are basic building blocks of nervous system

nucleus
cell membrane
dendrites
sona *cell body
Myelin sheath
node of ranvier
axon
axon terminals

Question 2

informaion passing through neutrons

Answer 2

information passes down neutron by electrical impulse

Question 3

information is transmitted within neutrons

Answer 3

through axonal conduction

Question 4

information transmitted between neutrons

Answer 4

through synaptic transmission

Question 5

how they communicate

Answer 5

the neuron generates an electrical impulse that travels down the axon and into the axon terminals

Question 6

3 main neuron types

Answer 6

sensory
motor
interneuron

Question 7

purkinje neutron found by

Answer 7

costandi

Ramon V Cajal in 1899

Question 8

neuron structure: soma

Answer 8

the ell body

Question 9

neuron structure: dendrites

Answer 9

specialised receiving units that collect messages from neighbouring neutrons and send them on to the cell body

Question 10

neuron structure: Axon

Answer 10

cunducts electrical impulses away from cell body to other neutrons muscles or glands

Question 11

neuron structure: Myelin Sheath

Answer 11

series of fatty wrappers formed by Glial cells
surrounds axons of neutrons that communicate over long distances in nervous system
allow fast propagation of action potentials along those axons

Question 12

MS

Answer 12

De-Myelination occurs

Question 13

neuron structure: nodes of Ranvier

Answer 13

Gaps between the Glial cell wrappers of Myelin Sheath around axons
nodes are crucial to the speed of electrical impulses along Myelinated axons
electrical signal is slow even in Myelinated neutrons its around 1-91m per sec

Question 14

the ways in which neutrons pass information

Answer 14

electrical impulses

chemistry

Question 15

Myelinated neurons appearance

Answer 15

white matter
whitish appearing particles and paths in the brain
composed of Myelinated neurons in particular Axons

Question 16

gray matter

Answer 16

the absence of myelination
gray matter is:
Dendrites
cell bodies
unMyelinated axons
...these are the nervous systems microcircuitry

Question 17

Glial cells

Answer 17

act as a guide wire for growing neurons
provide a supportive scaffolding for mature neutrons
form Myelin Sheath and blood brain barrier

Question 18

the blood brain barrier

Answer 18

protects the brain from:
noxious substances
some drugs

Question 19

blood vessels in brain

Answer 19

selectively permeable barrier
have a protective lining
allows in nutrients but keeps out toxious substances
prescription drugs for brain conditions must be able to pass through barrier

Question 20

Neuron communication: Axon membrane

Answer 20

Axon membrane is semi permiable so some chemicals can pass through freely others cat

When Axon membrane is stable there is an excess of positive ions on outside making a negative charge difference

Question 21

recording voltage within a neutron

Answer 21

an electrode is inserted into axon
the other records from Axons outside
at rest a -70 millivolt different ewill be detected
at firing the voltage will shift slightly before returning to resting voltage

Question 22

Neuron communications: electrical communications and voltage changes

Answer 22

when membrane is stimulated it deeplarises
and sodium ion channels open
this leads to an action potential
ion movement leads to an excess of positively charged particals inside the membrane
this produces a positive voltage swing
the excitation spreads leading to propagation of the action potential along the axon
immediately there is a refraction period
potasium channels open causing hyper polarisation

Question 23

electrical communications: hyperpolarisation

Answer 23

more negatively charged inside than the resting potential

Question 24

electrical communications: duing refractory period

Answer 24

cells are less sensitive to stimulation than they are normally

Question 25

electrical communications; return to resting potential

Answer 25

there are pumps that actively use energy to move sodium ions out of the neutron for every two potassium ions it puts in At rest, again there are rela;vely more sodium ions outside the neuron and more potassium ions inside that neuron

Question 26

electrical communications: sequence of events of action potential

Answer 26

neuron membrane is disturbed sodium channel opens and sodium floods in when voltage reaches -55 the neutron fires sending a wave of electrical impulse along the neutron sodium channels close and potasium opens reversing depolarisation potasium channels close ack to resting potential

Question 27

electrical communications: propagation is muc faster if ...

Answer 27

axon is myelinated Depolariza$on proceeds down the axon by a number of skips or jumps because ion cannels only open at the nodes of ranvier

Question 28

electrical communications: action potential and the all o none law

Answer 28

Once it’s launched, further increases in s;mulus intensity have no effect on its magnitude.

Question 29

interneural communication

Answer 29

``` at axon terminal the electrical signal causes the release of specialised chemicals these chemical (neurotransmitters) travel across synapse to next neutron ```

Question 30

chemical communications: synapse

Answer 30

the unction between two neutrons consisting of the presynaptic membrane post synaptic membrane and synaptic cleft between them

Question 31

chemical communications: neurotransmitters

Answer 31

make communication between two neutrons possible by: crossing synapse latching onto receptors on postsynaptic cel triggering a response in the ell some neurotransmitters are deactivated shortly after being discharged, this is done by "clean up: enzymes they are also more commonly reused by a process called synaptic repute different kinds of neuro transmitters

Question 32

chemical communications:lock and key model

Answer 32

proposes that: transmitter molecules will affect the postsynaptic membranes if the molecules shape fits into certain synaptic receptor molecules

Question 33

chemical communications: posysynaptic transmission

Answer 33

depending on the type of receptor that is activated the attachment of the neurotransmitters either: excites or inhibits the generations of an action potential in the postsynaptic cell

Question 34

chemical communications; excitatory/inhibitory

Answer 34

the resulting chemical changes are graded and can be either excitatory or inhibitory whether the neutron fires depends on the sum of these effects

Question 35

chemical communications: neurotransmitters and drugs

Answer 35

can impede or enhance the action of neurotransmitters

Question 36

Drugs: agonists

Answer 36

enhance efect of a neurotransmitter can: increase release of neurotransmitters, amphetamine doe this block reputake of neurotransmitters this happens with prosaic and cocaine can mimic specific neurotransmitters by binding to postsynaptic receptors and either activating them or increasing effects of neurotransmitters main effect of nicotine

Question 37

drugs:antagonist

Answer 37

impede effect of neurotransmitter can: block release of neurotransmitters, main effect of AMPT destroy neurotransmitters in synapse, mimic a spacific neurotransmitter binding to postsynaptic receptors enough to block any more neurotransmitter binding, main effect of propanelol (beta blocker) and halloo (antipsychotic drug)

Question 38

amphetamine

Answer 38

``` agonist increases the release of neurotransmitters in particular: dopamine neophhephrine ```

Question 39

cocaine and prosak

Answer 39

agonist | blocks repute of neurotransmitters

Question 40

nicotene

Answer 40

agonist mimics spacific neurotransmitters and either: activates them or increases neurotransmitters effects

Question 41

AMPT

Answer 41

antagonist | blocks release of neurotransmitters

Question 42

propranalol and Hadol

Answer 42

mimic a spacifi neurotransmitter and bind to postsynaptic receptor enough to stop further binding

Question 43

neurotransmitters: seratonin

Answer 43

``` usually inhibitory involved in many mechanisms of: sleep arousal aggression mood appetite overproduction causes OCD ```

Question 44

: selective seratonin reuptake inhibitors

Answer 44

reduce uptake of the neurotransmitter from the synapse prosak Zolott and Paxil: increase serotonin turnover in brain and find wide use as treatments for depression, obsessive compulsive disorder etc...

Question 45

neurotransmitters: GABA

Answer 45

gama-amibo butyric acid most widely distributed inhibitory transmitter in central nervous system implicated in anxiety disorders and depression

Question 46

alcohol and synapses

Answer 46

``` alcholo has multiple effects on neutrons italters: neutron membranes ion channels receptors enzymes ``` ``` it bind directly to receptors for: acetylcholine seratonin GABA glutamide ```

Question 47

alcohol and the GABA receptor

Answer 47

alcohol binds to GABAreceptors and amplifies the hyperpolarization effect of GABA neutron activity is further diminished this accounts for some of the sedative affects of alcohol

Question 48

hyperpolarization

Answer 48

occurs when the strength of an electric field across a cell membrane increases

Question 49

if the changes in the negative potential do not reach the -50mv action potential they are said to be...

Answer 49

graded potentials

Question 50

action potentials occur in...

Answer 50

axons dendrites cell bodies

Question 51

adrenal glands secrete hormones that regulate the ...

Answer 51

metabollic processes

Question 52

the key mechanism of the action potential is...

Answer 52

the action of the sodium and potassium channels in the cell membrane

Question 53

when sodium ions flood into cell this is...

Answer 53

depolarisation

Question 54

overactivity of serotonin is ascociated with

Answer 54

obsessive compulsive disorder

Question 55

Sperrys ecperiment

Answer 55

selected participants who were right handed show localisation of the brain and that verbal abilities were located on the left hemisphere

Question 56

researchers use these kinds of brain damage to investigate the function of different areas of the brain

Answer 56

``` degenerative disead tumour vascular infectious disease trauma epilepsy ```

Question 57

the association cortex is involved in...

Answer 57

many important mental function such as: perception langage thought

Question 58

why researcher might use an EEG

Answer 58

to explore the possibility of abnormal activity within the brain

Question 59

amphetamine increases the activity of ...

Answer 59

Dopamine | Noephephrine

Question 60

for a neuron to fire theorised must be...

Answer 60

+40 mv compared to the outside

Question 61

the brain is made up of...

Answer 61

fluid fat protein

Question 62

an inhibitory neurotransmitter causes...

Answer 62

negative chloride ions from the exterior to flow in | positive potasium ions t flow out of the neuron

Question 63

the neurotransmitter endorphin is the best known...

Answer 63

neuromodulator

Question 64

synaptic vesicles are...

Answer 64

chambers within the icon terminals where neurotransmitter molecules are stored

Question 65

example of a neuropsychological test

Answer 65

trail making test used to test memory and planning

Question 66

james olds 1953 study...

Answer 66

dopamine produced rewarding behaviour in rats