Bronchopulmonary Hygiene Flashcards
(148 cards)
1
Q
Normal Airway Clearance
A
Patent Airway
Functional Mucociliary Escalator-When the muscus travels up the epithelium via cilia to be expelled
Effective cough
2
Q
Retention of Secretions
A
Retention of Secretions can lead to a full or partial airway obstruction
If pathogens are present retention of secretions can result in secretions
Compounding these problem may be a failure in the cough reflex
In patients with retained secretions, interference with any one of the cough’s four phases can result in ineffective airway clearance
3
Q
Partial Obstruction
A
Restricts airflow
Will increase WOB which will lead to air trapping, overdistension, and ventilation/perfusion imbalances
4
Q
Full Obstruction
A
Muscus plugging
Atelectasis and imparied oxygenation due to shunting
5
Q
Hypoxic Vasoconstriction
A
Compensatory mechanism for shunt, will decrease blood flow to portion of lung and in turn increased pulmonary vascular resistance which can inpact the heart (very important when pt. has heart problems)
6
Q
What are the 4 phases of a Cough
A
1) Irritation
2) Inspiration
3) Compression
4) Expulsion
7
Q
Irritation Phase of the Cough
A
Something is bugging your lungs and you can sense it
A stimulus will trigger airway sensory recpetors, sending impulses to the brain’s medullary cough center
Causes can be-Inflammatory (cough), mechanical (sputum, foreign bodies), chemical (irritating gases such as cigarette smoke), and thermal (cold air)
8
Q
Mechanisms that Impair Irritation Phase of a Cough:
A
Anesthesia
CNS depression
Narcotic-analgesics
9
Q
Inspiration Phase of a Cough
A
In response to afferent impulses, the cough center will reflexively stimulate the inspiratory muscles to initiate a deep inspiration (1-2L)
10
Q
Mechanisms that Impair Inspirtion Phase of a Cough
A
Pain
Neuromuscular dysfunction
Pulmonary restriction
Abdominal restriction
MAP and MIP-Maximial expirator pressure and maximum inspirtory pressure
Vasalva manuever
11
Q
Compression Phase of a Cough
A
Compression-Closure of the glottis (vocal cord snap shut) in order to generate pressure
A reflex nerve will cause the glottis to close and the expiratory muscles to contract
Pleural and alveolar pressures increase rapidly.
This compression phase is normally about 0.2 second and results in a rapid rise in pleural and alveolar pressures, often in excess of 100 mm Hg.
12
Q
Mechanisms that impair compression in a cough
A
Laryngeal nerve damage
Artificial airway
Abdominal muscle weakness
Abdominal surgery
13
Q
Expulsion Phase of a Cough
A
The glottis opens, causing a large pressure gradient between the alveoli and the airway opening.
Expiratory muscles continue to contract.
The pressure gradient causes a high-velocity gas flow that displaces the mucus from the airway walls and into the air stream.
A violent, expulsive flow of air from the lungs, with velocities as high as 500 miles per hour.
14
Q
Mechanisms that impair expulsion
A
Airway compression
Airway obstruction
Abdominal muscle weakness
Inadequate lung recoil (e.g., emphysema)
15
Q
Patient may be unable to adequately clear secretions if:
A
There is loss of airway control
Increased secretion production or thickened secretions due to abnormal lung pathology
Inadequate cough
16
Q
Causes of Impaired Mucociliary Clearance in Intubated Patients
A
Endotracheal or tracheostomy tube Intubated patients
Tracheobronchial suction
Inadequate humidification
Drugs
General anesthetics
Opiates
Narcotics
Underlying pulmonary disease
17
Q
Mucocillary Clearerance in Intubated Patients
A
- The tube’s presence in the trachea
- increases mucus secretion
- the tube cuff mechanically blocks the mucociliary escalator.
- movement of the tube tip and cuff can cause erosion of the tracheal mucosa and further impair mucociliary clearance.
- endotracheal tubes impair the compression phase of the cough reflex by preventing closure of the glottis
- Although suctioning is used to aid secretion clearance, it, too, can cause damage to the airway mucosa and thus impair mucociliary transport.
- We have suction pressure on muciliary lining which can cause damage in itself
- The cuff will obstruct the secretions and will take away the glotic closure takign away the ability to create a high pressure coug
18
Q
Suctioning
A
Removal of secretions or other semi-liquid fluids from the airways using mechanical aspiration.
Application of negative pressure (vacuum) to the airways through a collecting tube (flexible or rigid catheter).
Removal of foreign bodies, secretions, or tissue masses beyond the mainstem bronchi requires bronchoscopy.
Upper airway is verythign above the glottis
19
Q
Indications for Suctioning
A
- Coarse or absent Br/S on auscultation
- An ineffective spontaneous cough
- Visible secretions in the airway
- The need to stimulate a cough in patients unable to cough effectively secondary to changes in mental status or the influence of medication (cough effort)
- Changes on Xray consistent with retained secretions-
- atelectasis or consolidation
- When we come to this point the patient may need a therapeutic bronchoscopy not just a suctionist
- Changes in monitored flow/pressure graphics
- Increased peak inspiratory pressure (PIP) on volume-control ventilation (VCV)
- Decreased tidal volume (Vt) on pressure control ventilation (PCV)
- Suspected aspiration of gastric or upper airway secretions
- Clinically apparent increased WOB
- Resp rate & pattern
- Changes in oxygenation- This is one of our big indications that suctioning is needed
- Colour
- Saturation (pulse oximetry)
- ABG
- Endotracheal tube aspirate
- Patency check
What does coarse mean?
Very thick secretions may not move with airflow and thus may not create any adventitious sounds.
If they are able to cough we may only need to assist them in the cough instead of a full deep suctioning
Indications
- Crackles or diminished breath sounds
- You can see it on the vent waveform
•
20
Q
True or False Is suction routinely Done on a Schedule
A
False
21
Q
Contraindications to Suctioning
A
Most contraindications are relative to patient’s risk of developing adverse reactions or worsening clinical condition as a result of procedure
When indicated, there are no absolute contraindications for endotracheal suctioning
If we do not clear secretions it can kill the patient, which is why there are only relative contraindications
Ex.When we cough we are increasing ICP which can be dangerous in TBI patient, what we can do to help this is to administer Lidocaine or even paralyze them in order to blunt their cough during suctioning
22
Q
Suction Equitment
A
- Adjustable suction source/collection system
- Sterile suction catheter
- Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)
- Sterile glove(s)
- Goggles, mask, and gown (standard precautions)
- Sterile basin
- Sterile bulk saline
- Some clinican use water some prefer saline as it is an isotonic
- Sterile saline for instillation
- Oxygen delivery system (BMV or ventilator)
23
Q
Types of Suction Regulators
A
- Continuous suction regulators: Either on or off
- Adjustable from 0 to –200 mmHg
- Intermittent suction regulators: Designed to cycle from on to off
- Cycle time & suction can be adjusted
- Three preset ranges (don’t need to memeorize know that we have it and you don’t use it for invasive suctioning)
- Low 50- 70 mmHg
- Medium 80- 100 mmHg
- High 110- 130 mmHg
- Older application: gastric tubes
- Latest application of intermittent suction: surgical drainage
24
Q
Collection System
A
Used to collect waste…
Prevent contamination of suction regulator/ suction machine
Contains valves to protect system from overflow
Valves interrupt suction when container full
25
Connection Tubing
Regulator -\> waste container
Waste container -\> suction catheter
Often canister is mounted on the wall on the wall. Short or long tubing doesn’t really matter. Because it is on the wall, a short piece of tubing is used to connect canister to regulator, and then a long piece from the canister to reach the patient.
Remember to check the pressure you are subjecting your patient to at the end nearest them. Distal to the vacuum source.
26
Flexible Suction Catheters
Inserted directly into artificial airways (or through the nose/ nasopharynx)
## Footnote
Can be used in the mouth, but not commonly seen in adults (have rigid/tonsillar suction )
Everytime before you suction a pt. even if they are sedated always warn your pt. first
Flexible (prevent damage to airway mucosa) but rigid enough to be passed through an airway
Various sizes
Smooth and molded edges to prevent trauma to airway mucosa
Produce minimal resistance due to friction when passed through airway
27
Flexible Suction Catheters-Sizes
* Various sizes (Fr)
* Size determined by outside circumference of catheter
* Most often seen/available in even sizes
* Too large can obstruct the endotracheal airway.
* Application of negative pressure evacuates lung volume and causes atelectasis and hypoxemia.
* Never suction a patient with a catheter whose outer diameter is greater than one half the internal diameter of the artificial airway
28
Rule of Thumb for Sizing Flexible Catheter
To estimate the proper flexible catheter size:
Multiple inner diameter (ID) of ETT x 2 & use next smallest even catheter
e.g. size 7 ID ETT will require a suction catheter with size: 7\*2= 14 à use 12 Fr
29
Catheter Tips
* Several catheter types available:
* straight
* angled or curved “coude”
* Variability in # & size of orifices (eyes)
* diameter of orifice/eyes larger than catheter’s inner diameter
30
Closed Multiuse System
Can be incorporated directly in the mechanically ventilated circuit (ETT or Trach) to be used repeatadly.
Because this system allows suctioning without disconnecting the patient from the ventilator, high Fio2 and positive end-expiratory pressure (PEEP) can be maintained, resulting in less likelihood of hypoxemia (preoxygenation with 100% O2 is still required).
After suctioning the catheter needs to be completely removed from the airway (check your markings)
Cross contamination is less likely and will cost lower
The extra weight an in-line catheter adds to a ventilator circuit may increase tension on the tracheal tube. Also, the presence of the catheter in the airway increases resistance. This will result in an increase in the peak inspiratory pressure and can alter the volumes delivered by a ventilator depending on how the ventilator is operating.
The reduced airway pressure during suctioning can cause the ventilator to inadvertently trigger.
31
Indications for Closed System (Inline) Catheters
Hemodynamic instability
High ventilatory requirements
On isolation
Receiving inhaled agents
Frequent suctioning
32
Endotracheal suctioning can be done through an endotracheal tube that is inserted:
Nasally or Orally
May be via an open or closed technique
Should be a sterile procedure
33
Tracheostomies may be suctioned
Via an open or closed technique
Sterile in ICU, will see “clean” on wards
34
Endotracheal Suction Levels
Adult 80-120 mmHg (open)
Adults full wall ~160 mmHg (closed)
Children 60-100 mmHg (open & closed)
Infants 60-80 mmHg (open & closed)
35
Suction Levels have Direct Effect on Lung Pressures:
Decreased Lung Volumes -\> Atelectasis -\> hypoxemia -\> Hypoxia
36
Sputum COCA
COCA: colour, odour, consistency, amount
37
The Three S of Suctioning
Stop
Stay
Stable
38
How to Oxygenate the Patient
30 sec-3 min on 100% oxygen following procedure (adults only)
39
Instillation
Instillation is not routinely done because of irritation to the patient which can cause bronchoconstriction (very dangerous in asthma) and it can uncomfortable. Can also produce biofilm into the lungs
Indications: Tenacious secretions, blood clots, etc
Instillation is to help mobilize secretion and produce a cough by putting saline down the tube
40
Equitment in OPEN Suction
Adjustable suction source/collection system
Sterile suction catheter
PPE-Sterile glove(s), goggles, mask, and gown (standard precautions)
Sterile basin
Sterile saline for lubricating and/or flushing catheter
Sterile saline for instillation
Oxygen source-BMV
41
Equitment in CLOSED Suction
Adjustable suction source/collection system
Multiuse/in-line suction catheter
Gloves
Sterile saline for flushing the catheter and/or instillation
Oxygen source-ventilator
42
Factors that Affect the Rate of Suction Flow
Magnitude of Suction Applied
Diameter of Tubing
Viscosity of Fluid Being Suctioned
43
‘Caution’ Regarding High Suction Levels
* Rate of suction flow is portportional to suction level if flow is smooth and laminar
* 50% increase suction level results in 50% increase in suction flow rate
* Flow within suction system is turbulent and disorderly
* Increased suction level by 50% may only increase flow by 20-25%
* Try to increase suction flow by increasing magnitude of suction level
* Not the best apprach but also not wrong
* Increasing suction will not increase flow because it will increase turbulent flow
* To try and get more laminar flow get a larger diameter of tubing, try to thin out secretions, and tryign to decrease magnitude
44
Other Types of Airway Clearing
Secretions or fluids can also be removed from the adult oropharynx by using a rigid, tonsillar or Yankauer suction.
Saliva, mucous, pulmonary secretions, blood or vomit
Oral/Oropharyngeal suctioning (massive)- Used to remove large or excessive amounts of secretions from oral cavity & oropharynx (no gag reflex!)
Will be at every pt. bedside
45
Suction Ranges
Infant/Child: 0- 100 mmHg
Adult: ~ 160 mmHg (~ full suction)
46
Nasopharyngeal Suctioning
Used for non intubated patients who are unable to properly clear their airway and you can not access the mouth
A lubricated flexible catheter will be inserted via the nasopharyngeal airway (NPA or trumpet). The NPA will be left in place in order to facilitate suctioning, but should be changed from one nare to the other every 24-48 hours.
NPA will be only used on adults, and they will restrict activity of the patient (requires physician orders to suction; whereas an OPA does not)
Nasal suction of infants should be done cautiously. Fishing with a flexible catheter may cause more swelling & compound the problem.
47
The Death Rattle in Pallative Care
NPA are commonly used in pallative care
The "death rattle" is when pallative patients have a decreased level of consiousness and can not clear secretions.
These patients will produce a gurgling sound and even though it may not bother the patient it tends to bother the family members, this is tricky though because you also need to be mindful that it can be hard on the patient to be suctioned
48
Different Suction For Different parts of the Airway
* **Nasal**
* ****Flexible catheter or bulb
* This is the preferred rout in awake non intubated patients
* **Mouth**
* ****Rigid (aka. Tonsillar, Yaunkauer), bulb, or flexible
* Rigid will be used for adults and not on infants where we only use flexible catheters
* Oropharyngeal suctioning should not be done in awake patients with a gag reflex
* **Lower Airway**
* Multi use (inline/closed)
* ****Single use (open)
* ****Flexible
49
DeLee Suctioning
Will not be used much as there is not a lot of research supporting it
Will be used for meconium which is when babies poop inside of mother womb and leads to meconium aspiration syndrome
50
Complications and Hazards from Suctioning
Hypoxia or hypoxemia
Atelectasis
Blood pressure changes (increase or decrease)
Cardiac dysrhythmias
Cardiac or respiratory arrest
Bronchospasm, laryngospasm (vocal cords shut), uncontrolled coughing, gagging, or vomiting
Increased intracranial pressure
Mechanical trauma
Tearing, bleeding & perforation
Discomfort and pain
Nosocomial infection
51
Preventing VAP
- HAND HYGIENE- Most Important!!
- Oral Hygiene
- Don’t break the circuit and minimize circuit changes
- cuff pressure
- bronchohygiene
- Moving HOB to 30-45
- Early nutritional support via GI tract: Reduce risk of bacterial translocation thereby minimize catabolic state imposed by resulting activation of imflammatory cascade
- Gastric Tube placed orally to minimize risk of sinusitis: NG tubes should be changed to OG tubes if expected to require mechanical ventilaiton for more then 24 hours. Once feeding tolerance has been established, these larger size tubes can be replaced by smaller bore tubes (i.e. silastic tubes) which can then be placed nasally for patient comfort.
- Gastroesophageal Reflux: Occurs during mechanical ventilation. Gastric fluid is more likely to be aspirated into the respiratory tract when patients are in the supine position. The head of the bed should be elevated (~ 35-45 degrees).
52
Gastric Tubes
* Gastric suctioning (via nasogastric or orogastric tubes) is done to suction gastric contents and decompress stomach
* Prevent vomiting and aspiration
* Obtain specimen of the gastric contents
* Assessment of GI bleed
* To treat gastric immobility and bowel obstruction
* For drainage/ lavage (old treatment)
* Patients with drug overdose or poisoning
* In addition gastric tubes can also be inserted for :
* Feeding (enteral)
* Way to provide food through nose
* Orogastric tubes are preferred in patient with ETT for more than 24 hours
* Infants less than 6 months are nose breathers and OG is preferred
* Medication administration
53
Complications of Gastric Tubes
Insertion of catheter can induce gagging or vomiting leading to aspiration
Tissue trauma
54
Contraindications of Gastric Tubes
Severe facial trauma (further trauma and bleeding while insertion)
Trauma to esophagus, stomach or duodenum (further trauma and bleeding while insertion)
Esophageal varices (possibility if hemorrhage while insertion)
Basal skull fractures or maxillofacial injury (for nasogastric tubes)
55
Basal Skull Fracture
Raccoon eyes are bilateral periorbital ecchymoses that don’t result from facial soft-tissue trauma.
Raccoon eyes may be the only indicator of a basal skull fracture, which isn’t always visible on skull X-rays. Their appearance signals the need for careful assessment to detect underlying trauma because a basil skull fracture can injure cranial nerves, blood vessels, and the brain stem.
Battle’s Sign: Bluish discoloration behind one or both ears
56
Equitment for Gastric Tube Insertion
* Personal protective equipment
* NG/ OG tube
* NG: 5- 18 Fr
* OG: 24- 42 Fr
* Catheter tip irrigation 60 ml syringe
* Water soluble lubricant
* Adhesive tape
* Suction equipment
* Stethoscope
* Felt pen
* Glass of water with straw/ soother
* You want your pt. to swallow
* Flashlight
* Non- sterile gloves
57
Clean Procedure for Gastric Tube
* Check physician orders & any relevant history
* Explain the procedure to the patient
* Gather equipment & don non- sterile gloves
* Determine the site of insertion
* Measure tube from tip of nose (nasogastric) or from end of the mouth (orogastric) to ear lobe, then to point half way between end of sternum (xiphoid process) and naval
* Note/ mark the length
* Lubricate 2- 4 inches of tube with water soluble lubricant (nasogastric)
* Instruct the patient to swallow and advance the tube past pharynx into esophagus and then stomach
* NG: gently insert tube into appropriate nostril, aiming towards back of head, tip parallel to nasal septum and superior to hard palate
* OG: pass tube through lips and over tongue, aiming down and back toward pharynx with patient’s head flexed forward
* If resistance met, rotate tube slowly with downward advancement without applying force
* Advance tube until marked/ noted length is reached
* Secure and attach to suction
* Tidy Up, Wash Hands and Chart
58
Withdrawal the Gastric Tube Immediately If
if changes occur in patient’s respiratory status
if tube coils in the mouth
if patient starts to cough, desaturate or gets cyanotic
59
How to Check for Correct Placement of Gastric Tube
X-ray
Attach syringe to free end of the tube
Aspirate gastric contents
Instill air into tube and auscultate (5 to 20cc)
Any doubt regarding proper placement, hold any instillations through the tube!
60
Ventilator Associated Pneumonia (VAP)
* VAP complicates the treatment of a significant number of patients that are mechanically ventilated.
* The morbidity rates vary but can reach 76%.
* The main organisms responsible for infection are
* Staphylococcus aureus
* Pseudomonas aeruginosa
* Enterobacteriaceae
* Using bronchoscopic techniques to obtain protected brush and bronchoalveolar lavage specimens from the affected area in the lung permits physicians to devise a therapeutic strategy that is superior to one based only on clinical evaluation.
61
Bland Aerosol Administration Includes Delivery Of
* Hypotonic saline
* Isotonic (normal) saline
* Would be used in aiding in suction, secretion mobility
* Hypertonic saline
* Would be used in sputum induction
* Sterile/distilled water
FYI: Bland aerosol administration may or may not be accompanied by oxygen administration.
62
Hypotonic Saline
Solution \<0.9% saline (less than normal concentration of saline)
Is indicated in patient who cannot tolerate sodium intake
Will not call irritation to the mucosal lining
**Causes fluid to pass from bronchial lumen into cells because of osmotic pressure gradient**
63
Normal Saline
0.9 % saline
Delivers fluid which is physiologically compatible and isotonic with the body tissue fluids
Irritation of tracheobronchial tree is minimal
64
Hypertonic Saline
Saline solution \> 0.9 % NaCl (3-10%)
Used to induce sputum sample by stimulating a cough
Increase concentration of saline solutions tend to be very irritating to airways and can induce bronchospasm
Mucosal cells tend to dehydrate and bronchial lumen receives additional water
65
Sterile/Distilled Water
Is hypotonic in comparison to tissue fluid
## Footnote
Some water moves into the mucosal cells and some enters bronchial secretions thus thinning the secretions and promoting expectoration
66
Indications for a bland aerosol
Minimizing humidity deficit when the upper airway has been bypassed
The use of cool, bland aerosol therapy is primarily indicated for upper airway edema
Sputum induction or secretion mobilization
67
The presence of one or more of the following may be an indication for administration of sterile water or isotonic or hypotonic saline aerosol:
–Bypassed upper airway
–Stridor or hoarseness post extubation
–Diagnosis of LTB or a brassy croup-like cough
–Clinical history suggesting upper airway irritation and increased work of breathing (eg, smoke inhalation)
–Patient discomfort associated with airway instrumentation or insult
68
Sputum Induction
Sputum Induction: Facilitates mobilization, coughing, and clearning of secretions. Hydration will thin secretion and help expectoration. Irritation results in a cough
The presence of the need for sputum induction is an indication for administration of hypertonic saline aerosol.
Primarily sputum induction is done using hyperosmolar saline (hypertonic)
The hyperosmolarity of the saline induces cough in the patient, resulting in effective cough and sputum production for sampling
Can also use sterile water, mucolytics, normal saline
If sending sample for C&S or for eosinophil count have patient rinse mouth prior to expectorating into sample cup – this prevents having saliva mixed with sputum. Do a smear to tell if there is microbacterium and then so a stain to say if it is TB, COPD
Here in Calgary we use H2O, in states they use club soda
69
Hazard and Complication of Bland Aerosol Therapy
* Patient discomfort: Bronchospasm, bronchoconstriction or wheezing
* Infection: There is a big push in the hospital to get rid of aerosolizing stuff
* Caregiver exposure to droplet nuclei (Mycobacterium tuberculosis) or other airborne contagious microorganism produced as a consequence of coughing
* Over hydration
70
Bland Aerosol Contraindications
History of airway hyper-responsiveness or bronchoconstriction
Sputum induction by hypertonic saline inhalation can cause bronchoconstriction with patients who have COPD, asthma, cystic fibrosis, or other pulmonary diseases.
71
Indications for Sputum Indiction
* Obtain sample for laboratory analysis
* Bland aerosols
* Medications (acetylcysteine & pulmozyme)
* Mobilize secretions
* Humidification
* Aerosols
* Systemic
Efficacy of using bland aerosol to reduce mucous has not been established; physical properties of mucous are only minimally effected by the addition of water aerosol; bland aerosol is not a replacement for system hydration
Mucomyst, dornase alpha
Pulmozyme is typically used for cycstic fibrosis
Both acetlysteine and pulmonzyme are mucolytics?
72
Sterile Fluids-No Microorganisms
Ascites
Blood
Pleural (if secondary to increase hydrostatic pressures)
Urine
73
Non Sterile – “Normal Flora”
Stool
Upper Respiratory Tract Secretions
74
Bacteria
Gram smear (slide) & exam
+ve or –ve depending on their staining
Shape: cocci (spheres) or rods (elongated)
Acid fast (aka Ziehl-Neelsen) for tuberculosis
75
Culture and Sensitivty
Culture “grow” 1 day to 6 weeks
Sensitivity- if bacterial, what antibiotic will prevent further growth?
C & S help us determine what bug is causing our patient’s infection & which drug is most appropriate to use to treat it.
Prior or current use of ABXs is usually noted as that may influence C & S results.
76
Gram-Negative Organisms
Klebsiella
Pseudomonas aeruginosa
Haemophilus influenzae
Legionella pneumophila
77
Gram-Positive Organisms
Streptococcus pneumoniae (80% of all bacterial pneumonias)
Staphylococcus aureus
78
Viral Organisms
Mycoplasma pneumoniae
Respiratory syncytial virus
79
Respiratory secretion
* Samples will be examined for cellular debris, microorganisms, blood, and pus
* How is a sample collected
* ETT or trach tube aspiration
* Sputum: Expectorated through the mouth
* Ask -\> Spontaneous
* Assist -\> "Facillitated" (aka induction)
* Bronchial lavage or washing (unproductive cough & unsuccessful induction)
* Induction =Process of bringing something up
* Done through brconchoscopy
80
Process to Facilitate a Sputum Sample
* Sputum induction involves short-term application of high-density hypertonic saline (3% to 10%) aerosols to the airway to assist in mobilizing pulmonary secretions for evacuation and recovery.
* Devices most commonly used:
* SVN
* USN
* The exact mechanism by which high-density hypertonic aerosols aid mucociliary clearance is unknown.
* However, an increased volume of surface fluid delivered to the airways, combined with stimulation of the irritant (cough) reflex, is a likely mechanism.
81
Sputum samples aid in diagnoses
* Pts expectorate sputum into containers ® sent to lab for analysis
* Collected first thing in morning
* Deep cough
* Containers made of clear plastic
* Should be examined regularly
* Colour
* Odour
* Consistency
* Amount/volume
82
Sputum Induction Procedure
* Standard precautions (N95 mask) & negative pressure room
* AM sample x 3
* Equipment
* Introduction & identification
* Explain procedure
* Provide sterile container
* Have patient rinse mouth & pretreat with a bronchodilator aerosol if needed
* The bronchodilator is because the hypertonic saline is very irritating in the lungs
* Place solution in neb and have pt. breath from neb
* On insp patient inhales through mouth
* Don’t get the to breath through the nose because it will filter the particles we want to get into the lungs for the sample
* On exp patient exhales through nose
* Slow inspiration and breath hold
* Continued until either acceptable sputum specimen collected or patient unable to tolerate procedure
83
Brown/dark “rusty” sputum
Brown/dark “rusty” sputum = old blood.
84
hemoptysis sputum
Bright Red (hemoptysis)= fresh blood.
85
Clear/translucent Sputum
Clear/translucent = normal
86
purulent sputum
Purulent = the presence of WBCs or pus makes the secretions appear creamy (bacterial
87
Fetid Sputum
Fetid = foul smelling
88
Frank hemoptysis
Frank hemoptysis = massive amount of blood
89
Green sputum
Green sputum = old, retained secretions; enzyme from stagnant pus .
Green and foul-smelling secretions are frequently found in patients with anaerobic or Pseudomonas infection.
90
Mucoid Sputum
Mucoid = clear & thick
91
Pink, frothy Sputum
Pink, frothy = pulmonary edema
92
Tenacious Sputum
Tenacious = secretions that are sticky, adhesive or otherwise tend to hold together
93
Viscous Sputum
Viscous = thick, gelatinous, sticky
94
white/grey/stringy Sputum
white/grey/stringy) = asthma, chronic bronchitis
95
Yellow or opaque Sputum
Yellow or opaque = purulent
96
Purulent or green and yellow sputum is seen in:
Acute Bronchitis
Pneumonia
Lung abscess
Cystic fibrosis
Bronchiectasis
Aspiration pneumonitis
97
Sputum with bright red blood is seen in:
Carcinoma of lung
Tuberculosis
Bronchiectasis
Pulmonary infarction
98
Darker blood (Rusty) sputum is expectorated in:
Several types of pneumonia
99
White or Clear mucoid sputum is seen in:
Asthma
Chronic bronchitis
100
Fetid Sputum is seen in:
Lung abscess
Bronchiectasis
Cystic fibrosis
Aspiration pneumonitis
101
Chest Physical Therapy (CPT)
Cough techniques
Postural drainage
Percussion
Vibration
Incentive spirometry and adjuncts
Breathing techniques
We don’t do this on anyone rather we only do based on need as research only does not show benefit from doing patient at risk
Chest physical therapy is a combination of lung expansion techniques and bronchial hygiene used to prevent or correct atelectasis and prevent secretion accumulation.
102
Purpose of CPT
Prevent secretion accumulation
Improve secretion clearance
Improve breathing efficacy
Improve ventilation distribution
Improve cardiopulmonary exercise tolerance and strength
TO CLEAR OR PREVENT ATELECTASIS
103
Cough Techniques
Bronchial hygiene depends on an effective cough
Some disease states inhibit or blunt the cough reflex, making it ineffective
Patients that have no effective cough need to learn cough techniques in order to improve their cough or to clear secretions
The most commonly taught techniques are the directed cough and the forced expiratory technique
104
Directed Cough
Position the patient sitting up
Have the patient take a slow big breath in through the nose using diaphragmatic breathing (when you breathing by pushing out your belly-coach pt. saying when you breath stick out your belly
Have the patient then bear down against the glottis (Valsalva), but this expiratory bearing down may have to be staged in short bursts for some patients to decrease fatigue and increase effectiveness
The bearing down mimics a spontaneous cough
This technique should be modified for COPD’ers: have them breathe in only moderately and breathe out via pursed lip breathing while bending forward slightly – this forward flexion should help mimic a cough
“huff, huff, huff”
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Assisted Cough
Useful for assisting patients with restrictive or paralytic disorders that impair lung excursion and increase the risk of secretion clearance failure
Have the patient take 3 breaths in and force out a cough
During the cough phase, the practitioner applies force 2 inches below the xiphoid and pushes up towards the head of the patient
Refer to hand out for technique
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Peak cough flow (Pcf)
Useful for monitoring patients with restrictive or paralytic disorders that impair lung excursion and increase the risk of secretion clearance failure
Have the patient take a big breath in and force out a cough – measure with a peak flow meter
Normal = 300 L/min
Less than 160 L/min – patient needs secretion clearance control interventions like chest physiotherapy
Refer to hand out for technique
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Forced Expiratory Technique (FET)
* A modified directed cough – a huff cough
* Consists of two forced exhalations without closing the glottis followed by relaxation and diaphragmatic breathing
* Verbal huffing during exhalation keeps glottis open
* Modification: Active Cycle of Breathing
* Breathing control: relaxed diaphragmatic breathing
* Thoracic expansion: deep inspirations X3 with passive exhalation
* FET’s X2 followed by relaxed breathing
* Done in cycles of 2 to 4 times
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Postural Drainage
Postural drainage involves positioning the patient using gravity to drain secretions from lung segments into the central airways for expulsion by coughing or suctioning
This is accomplished by using the patient’s bed and pillows to position the patient, and also includes turning
Also called autogenic drainage
There are also many reasons why we would not want to put pt. in these positions so be very careful (so always get a physician order before doing)
This is pretty much just allowing gravity to help us out
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Postural Drainage Indications
Chronic inability to clear secretions
Increased sputum production
Retained secretions in patients with artificial airways
Mucus plugging leading to atelectasis
Documented diagnosis of any disorder that may cause copious secretions: cystic fibrosis or bronchiectasis
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Postural Drainage Contraindications
Any head, neck, esophageal, spine injury or recent surgery
Active hemorrhage with hemodynamic instability
Bronchopleural fistula
Cardiogenic pulmonary edema
Large pleural effusions, pulmonary embolus
Acute hemoptysis, empyema, SubQ E, TB
Rib fractures, with or without flail
Any state with an uncontrolled airway and the risk of aspiration
Any patient who is frail and aged and cannot tolerate position changes
Any patient who is confused or agitated or in pain
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Postural Drainage Hazards
Cardiac output may decrease due to position changes, especially in the Trendelenburg or head-down position
Increased ICP
PaO2 may decrease due to V/Q changes with position changes: Patients who are in positions where blood may be pooled in consolidated lung areas may experience a large shunt when re-positioned
COPDer’s may experience orthopnea in some positions
Pulmonary hemorrhage, pain, vomiting
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Postural Drainage Precautions
Assess all vital signs prior for a baseline
Postural drainage should be performed prior to meals or tube feeds to prevent aspiration
Pain medications should be coordinated with postural drainage to prevent causing the patient discomfort
Use an SaO2 monitor to watch for desaturation
Know the patient’s diagnosis and history before postural drainage to prevent problems
Observe the patient carefully for signs of discomfort or changes in patient status i.e.: changes in their respiratory rate or pattern
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Principles and Techniques of Postural Drainage:
MAKE SURE THE DOCTOR’s ORDER IS WRITTEN AND CONFIRMED BEFORE POSTURAL DRAINAGE IS STARTED
Check that pain control has been initiated for the comfort of the patient
Check recent X-rays and oxygen requirements
Explain the procedure to the patient Check the patient’s vital signs and breath sounds
Ensure that clothing, IV lines, and O2 tubing will be moveable when re-positioning
Position the patient in the prescribed position, and check that the patient is tolerating the positioning well without adverse side effects HEAD DOWN 25º OR UP 45º
Maintain the position for 3 - 15 minutes, depending on hospital policy and the tolerance of the patient
Restore the patient to their pre-treatment position and monitor their vital signs and breath sounds
The patient should be encouraged to cough during and after postural drainage
NOTE: Turning the patient from side to side using a rotational bed or pillows is also used in some hospitals to improve lung expansion, but is not considered actual postural drainage
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Percussion and Vibration
* Percussion and vibration both utilize the application of energy (manual or mechanical) to the skin’s surface above the lung segment to be drained
* Percussion and vibration are designed to encourage secretion clearance:
* Percussion jars retained secretions loose from the tracheobronchial tree so they can be removed by coughing or suctioning
* Vibration moves secretions into the larger airways during exhalation for removal by coughing or suctioning
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Percussion and Vibration Indications
To be used an adjunct to postural drainage and coughing when these alone cannot provide adequate secretion clearance
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Percussion and Vibration Contraindications
Subcutaneous emphysema, any lung or skin injury/surgery
Recent epidural or spinal anesthesia
New subcutaneous or transvenous pacers
TB
Bronchospasm
Osteomyelitis or osteoporosis
Bleeding disorders
Chest wall pain
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Percussion and Vibration Hazards
Pain and discomfort to the patient
SOB
Hypoxia
Rib fractures
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Percussion and Vibration Precautions
Never percuss directly over breast or bone
Precautions associated with postural drainage are indicated here as well
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Principles and Techniques of Percussion:
Percussion manually done by an experienced therapist is considered the most effective method used in clinical practice
Manual percussion is performed with the hands in a cupped position, with fingers and thumbs closed inward
This creates an energy wave with a cushion of air between the hand and the patient’s chest wall
The wrists are loose, rhythmically clapping the patient’s chest in a waving motion
This manual technique is easy, but requires practice to develop a rhythm and pattern that is effective and comfortable to use
Percussion regimen’s differ from hospital to hospital, but the length of time required for postural drainage is also adequate in percussion
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Principles and Techniques of Vibration:
Vibration is performed on exhalation, either manually or with mechanical devices
Manual vibration is accomplished by lying one hand on top of the other on the chest area or on either side of the chest
After the patient maximally inhales, the therapist exerts pressure on the chest will in a rapid vibratory motion throughout the patient’s exhalation
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Mechanical percussors and vibrators
There are several electrical and pneumatic mechanical vibrators and percussors used in the clinical setting to apply the energy waves needed for percussion and vibration – cycle at 20-30 cycles/sec (20-30 Hz)
Pneumatic percussors and vibrators use a gas source for the energy needed, while electrical ones use a wall outlet power source
Most mechanical devices have several settings, so that the therapist can adjust the amount level of energy used
Currently there is no firm evidence that these devices are any more effective than a well trained and practiced therapist
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Percussors and Vibrators-How Do You Know It Works
Subjective patient improvement: decreased respiratory rate, remission of fever, normal pulse, and improved breath sounds
Improvement of atelectasis on X-Ray
Follow-up by the RRT should include:
* Observation of patient’s secretion clearance and comfort
* Vital signs and breath sound assessment
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What is Atelectasis?
A collapsed or airless secretion of the lung
Can lead to pneumonia, true shunt leading to V/Q mismatch
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Atelectasis Causes
Absorption -\> due to high alveolar O₂ concentrations
Passive -\> due to shallow breathing and no sighing
Reabsorption -\> due to obstruction by a mucus plug
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Signs of Atelectasis
Late inspiratory crackles
Decreased breath sounds
Increased heart rate due to hypoxia
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I.S. (Incentive Spirometry)
Increases transpulmonary P gradients by decreasing Ppl
Incentive spirometry (IS): same as SMI - sustained maximal inspiration (American)
Used for lung expansion therapy - mimics physiologic sighing through slow deep breathing patterns
Achievement of visual goals (markers/floats on the IS device) encourages the patient to continue and meet their predicted goal settings
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I.S. (Incentive Spirometry) Indicationas
Documented atelectasis
Impending atelectasis: thoracic/abdominal/cardiac surgery, post-op
Restrictive diseases/movement
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Incenive Spirometry Contraindications
Uncooperative or unable to perform procedure
Unable to understand instructions
Too weak or sick
VC less than 10 ml/kg
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Incentive Spirometry Hazards
Hyperventilation and respiratory alkalosis
Discomfort due to poor pain control
Barotrauma
Hypoxemia if O2 has to be removed
Bronchospasm
Fatigue
Vagal stimulation
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Incentive Spirometry Instruction
Setting an IS goal for a specific patient differs with hospital policy - some hospitals use the inserts that are included with IS units that determine the patients predicted values based on their height and age and some hospitals use the patient’s pre-surgery IS levels as their goals
IS should be done 5 - 10 maneuvers/hour post surgery as the patient can tolerate
Instruct the patient to take a DEEP SLOW breath in using the diaphragm and not the accessory muscles
After this maximal inspiration, have the patient breath-hold (if they are able) for 5 - 10 seconds, and exhale normally
One IS maneuver has been completed
The patient may need to rest before the next maneuver
10 maneuvers an hour is optimal
Follow-up and coaching should be done
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Incentive Spirometry Equitment
* The IS units most often used:
* Flow-directed - measures flow achieved i.e.: 600 cc/sec, volume can be calculated by extrapolation =
* Multiplied flow by inspiratory time V=V cc/sec X time/sec/1000
* Volume-orientated - measures actual volume achieved by a displacement bellows (mls or cc’s)
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Incentive Spirometry - How do You Know It Works?
Subjective patient improvement: decreased respiratory rate, remission of fever, normal pulse, and improved breath sounds
Improvement of atelectasis on X-Ray
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Follow Up From Incentive Spirometry
Observation of patient’s technique
Additional instruction if needed
Making sure the device is within the patient’s reach and that they are using it on their own
Setting new and increased inspiratory goals every day if improving
Vital signs and breath sound assessment
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Lung Volume Recruitment (LVR)
Recruitment maneuver used in patients with paralytic disorders like ALS that have high risks of atelectasis and secretion clearance failure
Uses a resuscitation bag to stack breaths to achieve maximum insufflation and promote alveolar recruitment (“stretch”) and allow for a strong cough on exhalation if required
Often followed by assisted cough maneuvers to promote secretion clearance
Refer to handout for technique
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Breathing Techniques
Some patients require training in order to breath more
effectively to:
* Encourage more use of the diaphragm and less use of accessory inspiratory muscles
* Decrease the tendency to use gasping respirations
* Teach patients to cope with dyspnea
* Decrease muscle inefficiency
* Coordinate breathing with motion and daily activities
* Relieve exertional dyspnea
* Improve cardiopulmonary fitness and exercise tolerance
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INDICATIONS FOR BREATHING EXERCISES
COPD patients requiring more effective breathing patterns
Patients with neurological deficits that require respiratory muscle retraining
Patients in restricted movement states
Smoke free for 30 days
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CONTRAINDICATIONS FOR BREATHING EXERCISES
Patients who cannot understand or comprehend instructions
Intubated or trached patients
Patients with guarded conditions or multisystem failure
Patients whose disease process prohibits them from any rehabilitative therapy
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HAZARDS AND PRECAUTIONS OF BREATHING EXERCISES
Improper instruction by the therapist leading to hyperventilation
Hypoxia
Discomfort or confusion for the patient
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Diaphragmatic (Abdominal) Breathing
The purpose of diaphragmatic breathing is to teach patients better use of their diaphragm and decreases their dependency on accessory muscle usage
The long term benefits to the patient are an increased alveolar ventilation efficiency via increased tidal volume, improved and slower respiratory rate, and an improved exercise tolerance
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Diaphragmatic Breathing Instructions
Position the patient sitting up
Have the patient distend their belly out as they breathe in to lower the diaphragm and flatten their belly on exhalation to elevate the diaphragm
This is done to strengthen inspiratory and expiratory effort
The patient should be able to repeat this 5 times in total, at least 3 times a day
The purpose is to use the belly and intercostals on I to pull the diaphragm out and down, and on E to push the diaphragm up
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Lateral Costal Breathing:
This method is intended to augment diaphragmatic breathing, and is a modification of abdominal breathing
It involves the contracting and expanding of the costal margin, which increases diaphragmatic mobility
It is considered an alternative to diaphragmatic breathing for patients who cannot tolerate or perform it or abdominal surgery patients. Patient benefits are the same as with diaphragmatic breathing
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Lateral Costal Breathing Instruction
Position the patient sitting up
Have the patient take a few big relaxed breaths
Have the patient place their hands on their sides of their ribcage or place your hands in the same place
Have the patient take a big breath in then apply gentle pressure inwards at the end of the last big breath out - this provides resistance that the patient has to use their intercostals to work against for the next 5 consecutive breaths in and out and then a rest
This is done to strengthen inspiratory and expiratory effort
The patient should be able to repeat this 5 times in total, at least 3 times a day
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PURSED-LIP BREATHING:
* Pursed-lip breathing is used mainly by COPDer’s because they are prone to early airway collapse
* It is usually manifested by the patients on their own as a physiological response to air trapping cause by COPD
* Pursed-lip breathing increases expiratory flow resistance which:
* Decreases early bronchiolar collapse by increasing pressure in the tracheobronchial tree during expiration causing the equal pressure point to move up to the larger airways
* Decreases expiratory flow rates
* Deecreases respiratory rate and increases expiratory time
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PURSED-LIP BREATHING Technique
The patient should be in a comfortable position
The patient is instructed to inhale slowly through their mouth
During exhalation, the patient is instructed to purse their lips as if to whistle, which controls expiratory flow and slows it down
This should decrease the patient’s respiratory rate and increase expiratory time to 2 or 3 times longer than inspiratory time
The therapist should instruct the patient to practice often and use pursed-lip breathing when they experience dyspnea
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Artificial Cough Devices:
Most common is the chest vest oscillator
Works by rapidly oscillating air volumes within the vest to rapidly compress and vibrate the chest of the patient
Generally used for patients with CF
Effective chest physical therapy is more efficient
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The CoughAssist improves secretion clearance by gradually applying a positive pressure to the airway, and then rapidly shifts to negative pressure
The rapid shift in pressure produces a high expiratory flow from the lungs, simulating a cough
Useful in patients with Neuromuscular disease and a weak cough
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Flutter Valves
HFOA, Uses expiratory pressure and high frequency oscillation through the valve
On exhalation, the expiratory pressure created ranges from 10 - 25 cmH2O, and the oscillations (15 Hz) created are transmitted into the chest wall
Very effective for CF and CB patients in cycles of 10 – 20 breaths at a time
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Resistance Trainers
Most common is the PEP device
Uses positive expiratory pressure (10 – 20 cmH20)with variable flow resistance
Have the patient exhale slowly through the device, then remove the device and huff 3 times to cough and mobilize secretions
