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Semester 2 > Cardiovascular > Flashcards

Cardiovascular Flashcards

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1
Q

What are the two main components of blood?

A

Plasma and formed elements

Formed elements include erythrocytes, leukocytes, and platelets.

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2
Q

What is the normal pH range of blood?

A

7.35 – 7.45

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3
Q

What is the average blood volume for males?

A

5-6 L

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4
Q

What is the average blood volume for females?

A

4-5 L

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5
Q

List the three main functions of blood.

A
  • Transport
  • Regulation
  • Protection
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6
Q

What substances does blood distribute?

A
  • O2
  • CO2
  • Nutrients
  • Wastes
  • Hormones
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7
Q

What are the components of plasma?

A
  • Water
  • Proteins
  • Waste products
  • Nutrients
  • Electrolytes
  • Respiratory gases
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8
Q

What is the structure of erythrocytes?

A

Biconcave, anucleate, filled with hemoglobin

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9
Q

What is the function of hemoglobin?

A

Transports O2 and CO2

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10
Q

What is the normal erythrocyte count for males?

A

4.5 – 6.3 million cells/mm3

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11
Q

What is the normal erythrocyte count for females?

A

4.2 – 5.5 million cells/mm3

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12
Q

Describe the life cycle of a red blood cell.

A
  • Hemocytoblast → Proerythroblast → Erythroblast → Normoblast → Reticulocyte → Erythrocyte
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13
Q

What hormone stimulates RBC production?

A

Erythropoietin (EPO)

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14
Q

What are the three main causes of anemia?

A
  • Insufficient number of erythrocytes
  • Decreased hemoglobin content
  • Abnormal hemoglobin
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15
Q

What is polycythemia?

A

Abnormally high RBC count that makes blood too viscous

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16
Q

What are the two main categories of leukocytes?

A
  • Granulocytes
  • Agranulocytes
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17
Q

What is the function of neutrophils?

A

Phagocytes that are the most numerous WBCs

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18
Q

What do eosinophils target?

A

Larger microbes and immune complexes

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19
Q

What is the function of basophils?

A

Release histamine and heparin

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20
Q

Which leukocytes provide specific immunity?

A

Lymphocytes

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21
Q

What is leukopoiesis?

A

Production of leukocytes

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22
Q

What is leukemia?

A

Uncontrolled growth of non-functional WBCs

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23
Q

What are platelets formed from?

A

Megakaryocytes

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24
Q

What is the primary function of platelets?

A

Help stop bleeding

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25
List the three primary hemostatic mechanisms.
* Vasoconstriction * Platelet plug formation * Blood clot formation
26
What is the intrinsic pathway in blood clot formation?
Involves more steps, requires Ca++, does not require chemical signaling
27
What is the extrinsic pathway in blood clot formation?
Involves fewer steps, requires Ca++, and tissue factor
28
What is the primary cause of thrombus?
Blood clot develops in an unbroken vessel
29
What determines ABO blood types?
Presence or absence of Antigen A and Antigen B
30
What is the Rh factor?
Presence or absence of antigen D on erythrocytes
31
What are the four chambers of the heart?
* Right atrium * Left atrium * Right ventricle * Left ventricle
32
What is the pericardium?
Double-layered serous membrane surrounding the heart
33
What are the three layers of the heart wall?
* Epicardium * Myocardium * Endocardium
34
What is the function of the atrioventricular valves?
Ensure one-way blood flow between atria and ventricles
35
What is the function of heart valves?
Heart valves make blood flow in one direction.
36
What are the two types of atrioventricular valves?
* Right AV valve = tricuspid valve * Left AV valve = bicuspid valve (mitral valve)
37
What is the structure of the atrioventricular valves?
The AV valves are composed of a fibrous sheet of connective tissue anchored into the opening connecting an atrium and a ventricle.
38
What prevents back flow of blood from the ventricles into the atria?
Chordae tendineae attached to papillary muscles.
39
How do the atrioventricular valves function?
They open and close in response to pressure changes.
40
What is the function of semilunar valves?
They regulate flow in one direction from the ventricles into blood vessels.
41
What are the two types of semilunar valves?
* Right semilunar valve = pulmonary valve * Left semilunar valve = aortic valve
42
What are heart sounds caused by?
The sound of the heartbeat, described as 'lub – dub', is the sound of the valves closing.
43
What is the journey of deoxygenated blood through the heart?
* Enters right atrium * Flows through tricuspid valve * Enters right ventricle * Exits through pulmonary semilunar valve to pulmonary arteries
44
What is the journey of oxygenated blood through the heart?
* Returns to left atrium via pulmonary veins * Flows through bicuspid valve * Enters left ventricle * Exits through aortic semilunar valve into aorta
45
What is coronary circulation?
Oxygenated blood from the aorta is diverted into the coronary arteries, supplying the heart with blood.
46
What are intercalated discs?
Structures that connect cardiac muscle fibers, allowing them to function as a syncytium.
47
What types of cardiac muscle cells exist?
* Contractile cells (99%) * Pacemaker cells (1%)
48
What is the resting membrane potential (RMP) of contractile cells?
-90mv
49
What is the role of pacemaker cells?
They generate action potentials and cannot maintain a resting membrane potential over time.
50
What is the sequence of excitation in the intrinsic conduction system?
* Sinoatrial (SA) node * Atrial syncytium * Atrioventricular (AV) node * AV bundle * Purkinje fibers
51
What does an ECG measure?
It is a graphic recording of electrical changes occurring in the heart.
52
What do the P wave, QRS complex, and T wave represent in an ECG?
* P wave = atrial depolarization * QRS complex = ventricular depolarization * T wave = ventricular repolarization
53
What influences the intrinsic rate of the heartbeat?
Nervous innervation of the heart.
54
What is cardiac output (CO)?
CO = Stroke Volume (SV) x Heart Rate (beats per minute)
55
What are the three main layers of a blood vessel wall?
* Tunica interna (endothelium) * Tunica media (smooth muscle) * Tunica externa (connective tissue)
56
What are the two types of arteries?
* Elastic arteries * Muscular arteries
57
What is the primary function of capillaries?
They provide a thin layer for the exchange of gases, nutrients, and wastes.
58
What are the three types of capillaries?
* Continuous * Fenestrated * Sinusoids
59
What is the main function of veins?
They carry low pressure blood back to the heart.
60
What are the main factors that determine blood pressure?
* Cardiac output * Blood volume * Resistance to blood flow
61
What causes resistance to blood flow?
* Blood viscosity * Blood vessel length * Blood vessel radius
62
What is the definition of blood pressure?
The pressure exerted on the wall of a blood vessel by the blood contained within it.
63
What happens to blood pressure as blood flows from arteries to capillaries and into veins?
Blood pressure decreases.
64
How is blood pressure regulated?
* Autoregulation * Short-term controls * Long-term controls
65
What is the role of the umbilical vein in fetal circulation?
Carries oxygenated blood from the placenta to the fetus.
66
What is the ductus venosus?
A shunt that conveys blood away from the liver into the inferior vena cava.
67
What are the possible paths blood can take in the right atrium of a fetus?
* Through the tricuspid valve to the right ventricle * Shunted from the pulmonary trunk into the aorta by the ductus arteriosus * Directly from the right atrium to the left atrium through the foramen ovale
68
What happens to blood pressure as blood flows from arteries through capillaries and into veins?
Blood pressure decreases ## Footnote This is a fundamental concept in understanding hemodynamics.
69
What are the three ways blood pressure is regulated?
* Autoregulation * Neural control * Hormonal control ## Footnote Each method has its own mechanisms for maintaining blood pressure.
70
What is autoregulation in the context of blood pressure?
A form of local control that causes vasodilation in response to hypoxia or increased waste products ## Footnote This increases blood flow and decreases blood pressure.
71
What role does the vasomotor center play in neural control of blood pressure?
Stimulates low level contraction of smooth muscle in blood vessel walls, known as vasomotor tone ## Footnote This is similar to skeletal muscle tone.
72
What is the baroreflex?
A primary mechanism to regulate blood pressure through baroreceptors sensing stretch in carotid sinuses ## Footnote It helps maintain blood pressure homeostasis.
73
How does increased blood pressure affect the baroreflex?
Increased stretch in arteries inhibits the vasomotor center, leading to vasodilation and decreased blood pressure ## Footnote This is part of the feedback loop for blood pressure regulation.
74
What stimulates the vasomotor center in response to decreased blood pressure?
Decreased stretch in arteries ## Footnote This results in vasoconstriction and increased blood pressure.
75
What are the primary changes detected by chemoreceptors in the carotid and aortic bodies?
* Decrease in O2 * Increase in CO2 * Decrease in pH ## Footnote These changes primarily stimulate respiration but also affect blood pressure.
76
Which hormones are involved in increasing blood pressure?
* Angiotensin II * Aldosterone * ADH ## Footnote These hormones have various physiological effects that raise blood pressure.
77
What is the effect of Atrial natriuretic factor (ANF) on blood pressure?
It decreases blood pressure by promoting sodium excretion in the kidneys ## Footnote This hormone is secreted in response to increased blood pressure.
78
How is blood pressure measured?
Using a pressure cuff, sphygmomanometer, and stethoscope ## Footnote Blood flow sounds indicate systolic and diastolic pressures.
79
What does a sphygmomanometer measure?
Blood pressure ## Footnote It provides readings in the form of systolic/diastolic pressure.
80
What is interstitial fluid (ISF) and how is it formed?
Fluid formed when small proteins slip out of capillaries and create an osmotic gradient ## Footnote This process allows water to move out of the blood.
81
What happens to interstitial fluid (ISF) as its volume increases?
Increased ISF pressure drives fluid into lymphatic capillaries, forming lymph ## Footnote This transition is crucial for the lymphatic system.
82
Where are lymph nodes located in the body?
* Cervical * Axillary * Thoracic * Abdominal * Inguinal ## Footnote These regions are where lymph nodes are clustered.
83
What is the function of lymph nodes?
They filter and clean lymphatic fluid as it moves through ## Footnote Lymph nodes house many lymphocytes for immune response.
84
What connects lymphatic vessels to the cardiovascular system?
Collecting ducts ## Footnote They merge superior to the heart and connect to subclavian veins.
85
What is the thoracic duct's role in the lymphatic system?
It empties lymph into the left subclavian vein ## Footnote This is a primary collecting duct for lymph.
86
What causes lymphedema?
Obstruction of lymph movement leading to accumulation of lymph ## Footnote This condition results in swelling downstream from the blockage.
87
All white blood cells are phagocytic cells.
False ## Footnote Not all white blood cells perform phagocytosis; some have other functions.
88
What is the most common plasma protein?
Albumin ## Footnote Albumin plays a crucial role in maintaining osmotic pressure.
89
Which of the following factors will NOT increase the RBC count?
Sleep ## Footnote Factors like exercise and higher altitude typically increase RBC count.
90
What is anemia?
Decreased RBC count ## Footnote Anemia can also be characterized by abnormal hemoglobin or decreased oxygen-carrying capacity.
91
Which type of leukocyte is most numerous?
Neutrophil ## Footnote Neutrophils are the primary type of white blood cell in the bloodstream.
92
Which of the following cell types is an agranulocyte?
Lymphocyte ## Footnote Agranulocytes lack granules in their cytoplasm.
93
Which of the following leukocytes provide specific immunity?
Lymphocyte ## Footnote Lymphocytes are crucial for adaptive immune responses.
94
Which of the following leukocytes secretes heparin?
Basophil ## Footnote Heparin is an anticoagulant that helps prevent blood clotting.
95
Which of the following conditions could result from an infection?
Leukocytosis ## Footnote Leukocytosis is an increase in white blood cells often due to infection.
96
Identify the first step in a hemostatic mechanism.
Vascular spasm ## Footnote This is the immediate response to blood vessel injury.
97
What cell type is the last to become involved during blood clot formation?
Fibrin ## Footnote Fibrin is essential for the stabilization of the clot.
98
Which mechanism for blood clot formation is the fastest?
Extrinsic pathway ## Footnote The extrinsic pathway is activated by tissue factor and is quicker than the intrinsic pathway.
99
What type of blood can a person with O+ receive during a transfusion?
O ## Footnote O+ can receive O blood types and has Rh factor compatibility.
100
If the father of a child is Rh+ and the mother is Rh-, the child will be:
Can’t be determined with this data ## Footnote The child's Rh status depends on the specific alleles inherited.
101
What is the most common component of blood?
plasma ## Footnote Plasma makes up about 55% of total blood volume.
102
What is a protective mechanism of blood? Select all correct answers.
• blood clotting • distribution of antibodies ## Footnote Blood also plays roles in oxygen transport and waste removal.
103
What is the purpose of albumin?
• maintenance of osmotic pressure ## Footnote Albumin also serves as a carrier for hormones and nutrients.
104
What are the advantages of the biconcave shape of a RBC? Select all correct answers.
• provides flexibility • all Hb is close to the surface ## Footnote Biconcave shape enhances gas exchange efficiency.
105
Where does oxygen bind within a RBC?
on the iron atom ## Footnote Oxygen binds to the heme group, specifically at the iron site.
106
How many molecules of oxygen can one Hb molecule transport?
4 ## Footnote Each hemoglobin molecule can carry four oxygen molecules.
107
What is the stimulus of EPO secretion?
low oxygen carrying capacity of the blood ## Footnote EPO (erythropoietin) is produced primarily in response to hypoxia.
108
Following erythropoiesis, what type of cell enters the circulation?
reticulocyte ## Footnote Reticulocytes mature into erythrocytes after entering the bloodstream.
109
When dead/damaged RBCs are removed from circulation, which part of the heme group is metabolized into a bile pigment?
porphyrin ring ## Footnote The breakdown of heme results in bilirubin, a bile pigment.
110
Which of these conditions is known as polycythemia vera?
increased blood viscosity ## Footnote Polycythemia vera is a blood disorder characterized by an overproduction of red blood cells.
111
Which of these factors is not a cause of anemia?
vitamin C deficiency ## Footnote Anemia is typically caused by factors affecting RBC count or hemoglobin.
112
Identify the granulocyte:
neutrophil ## Footnote Neutrophils are the most abundant type of granulocyte.
113
Identify the agranulocyte:
monocyte ## Footnote Monocytes differentiate into macrophages and dendritic cells.
114
What type of WBC can produce antibodies?
lymphocyte ## Footnote Specifically, B lymphocytes are responsible for antibody production.
115
What is the most common type of phagocytic cell?
neutrophil ## Footnote Neutrophils are the first responders to sites of infection.
116
What type of WBC can differentiate into a macrophage?
monocyte ## Footnote Monocytes mature into macrophages upon entering tissues.
117
What type of WBC secretes histamine?
basophil ## Footnote Basophils play a role in allergic responses and inflammation.
118
Identify the WBC that can secrete metabolic acids onto a parasitic worm:
eosinophil ## Footnote Eosinophils are involved in combating parasitic infections.
119
From a developmental standpoint, what type of WBC is most different from the others?
lymphocyte ## Footnote Lymphocytes arise from different progenitor cells compared to granulocytes.
120
Leukocytosis can result from:
• infection • high temperature ## Footnote Other causes include stress or inflammation.
121
How does a platelet initiate the formation of a blood clot?
by forming a platelet plug ## Footnote Platelets aggregate at the site of injury to initiate clotting.
122
How does a platelet initiate the formation of a blood clot?
by secreting tissue thromboplastin by secreting serotonin by forming a platelet plug by causing vasoconstriction
123
What is the difference between a platelet plug and a blood clot? Select all correct answers.
presence of platelets presence of fibrin presence of fibrinogen presence of tissue thromboplastin presence of erythrocytes
124
How does a drop of blood on the floor coagulate?
it just dries up it can't coagulate tissue thromboplastin precipitates out of solution by the intrinsic pathway
125
What cell type disintegrates to give rise to platelets?
hemocytoblast erythroblast reticulocyte megakaryocyte
126
What converts fibrinogen into fibrin?
prothrombin thrombin calcium tissue thromboplastin
127
A person with type A blood: Select all correct answers.
has antigen A on the surface of RBCs has antigen B on the surface of RBCs has antigen A on the surface of all blood cells has anti-A antibodies in the plasma has anti-B antibodies in the plasma
128
What is the approximate size of the heart?
Approximately the size of your fist
129
Where is the heart located?
Mediastinum
130
What are the two main orientations of the heart?
* Apex * Base
131
What is the pericardium?
A double-walled sac around the heart
132
What are the layers of the pericardium?
* Superficial fibrous pericardium * Deep two-layer serous membrane
133
What lines the internal surface of the fibrous pericardium?
Parietal pericardium
134
What covers the surface of the heart?
Visceral pericardium or epicardium
135
What separates the parietal and visceral pericardium?
Fluid-filled pericardial cavity
136
What is the epicardium?
Visceral layer of the serous pericardium
137
What is the myocardium?
Cardiac muscle layer forming the bulk of the heart
138
What is the endocardium?
Endothelial layer lining the chambers of the heart
139
What are the receiving chambers of the heart?
Atria
140
What marks the walls of the atria?
Pectinate muscles
141
What are the discharging chambers of the heart?
Ventricles
142
What do the right and left ventricles pump blood into?
* Right ventricle: pulmonary circuit * Left ventricle: systemic circuit
143
What is the pathway of blood through the heart starting from the right atrium?
Right atrium 🡪 tricuspid valve 🡪 right ventricle 🡪 pulmonary semilunar valve 🡪 pulmonary trunk 🡪 right and left pulmonary arteries 🡪 lungs
144
What is the function of the pulmonary circuit?
Gas exchange in capillary beds of lungs
145
What is the function of the systemic circuit?
Gas exchange in capillary beds of all body tissues
146
What are coronary arteries responsible for?
Functional blood supply to the heart muscle itself
147
What ensures blood delivery to the heart even if major vessels are occluded?
Collateral routes
148
What are the atrioventricular (AV) valves?
Valves that lie between the atria and the ventricles
149
What prevents backflow into the atria during ventricular contraction?
AV valves
150
What anchors AV valves to the papillary muscles?
Chordae tendineae
151
What are the two types of semilunar valves?
* Aortic semilunar valve * Pulmonary semilunar valve
152
What is the microscopic structure of cardiac muscle?
Striated, short, fat, branched, and interconnected
153
What allows free passage of ions between cardiac cells?
Intercalated discs
154
What is the function of autorhythmic cells?
Automatically generate action potentials
155
What generates impulses in the heart?
Sinoatrial (SA) node
156
How many depolarizations per minute does the SA node generate?
80-100 depolarizations/minute
157
What is the role of the atrioventricular (AV) node?
Delays the impulse approximately 0.1 second
158
What carries impulses from the AV node to the ventricles?
Atrioventricular bundle (bundle of His)
159
What are Purkinje fibers responsible for?
Carrying impulses to the heart apex and ventricular walls
160
What is the absolute refractory period in cardiac muscle?
Time during which no action potential can be generated
161
Fill in the blank: The _______ valve lies between the left ventricle and the aorta.
Aortic semilunar
162
Fill in the blank: The _______ valve lies between the right ventricle and the pulmonary trunk.
Pulmonary semilunar
163
True or False: The semilunar valves prevent backflow of blood into the atria.
False
164
What splits into two pathways in the interventricular septum?
AV bundle ## Footnote The AV bundle is also known as the bundle of His.
165
What carries the impulse toward the apex of the heart?
Bundle branches
166
What carries the impulse to the heart apex and ventricular walls?
Purkinje fibers
167
What is the role of the sinoatrial (SA) node?
Generates impulses
168
How long do impulses pause at the atrioventricular (AV) node?
0.1 seconds
169
What does the AV bundle connect?
The atria to the ventricles
170
What do the bundle branches conduct impulses through?
Interventricular septum
171
What do Purkinje fibers depolarize?
Contractile cells of both ventricles
172
What does the P wave in an ECG correspond to?
Depolarization of SA node
173
What does the QRS complex in an ECG correspond to?
Ventricular depolarization
174
What does the T wave in an ECG correspond to?
Ventricular repolarization
175
True or False: Atrial repolarization is recorded in the ECG.
False
176
What is the effect of the cardio acceleratory center?
Increases heart rate
177
What nerve decreases heart rate?
Vagus nerve
178
What is the first heart sound associated with?
Closing of AV valves
179
What is the second heart sound associated with?
Closing of semilunar valves
180
Define systole.
Contraction of heart muscle
181
Define diastole.
Relaxation of heart muscle
182
What is the end diastolic volume (EDV)?
Volume of blood trapped in a ventricle at the end of diastole
183
What occurs during isovolumetric contraction phase?
Ventricular pressure > blood vessel pressure, semilunar valves open
184
What is the dicrotic notch?
Brief rise in aortic pressure caused by backflow of blood
185
What does the Frank-Starling Law of the Heart state?
Preload of cardiac muscle cells controls stroke volume
186
What is cardiac output (CO)?
Amount of blood pumped by each ventricle in one minute
187
What is the formula for calculating cardiac output?
CO = heart rate (HR) × stroke volume (SV)
188
Fill in the blank: The _______ is the amount of blood pumped out by a ventricle with each beat.
Stroke volume (SV)
189
What happens when venous return to the heart increases?
Increased stroke volume (SV)
190
What happens when venous return to the heart decreases?
Decreased stroke volume (SV)
191
What are the main components of blood?
Liquid plasma and formed elements: * Erythrocytes (RBCs) * Leukocytes (WBCs) * Platelets
192
What does hematocrit measure?
The percentage of RBCs out of the total blood volume
193
What is the pH range of blood?
7.35–7.45
194
What is the average blood volume for males?
5–6 L
195
What is the average blood volume for females?
4–5 L
196
List the three main functions of blood.
* Substance distribution * Regulation of blood levels of substances * Body protection
197
What substances does blood transport?
* Oxygen from the lungs * Nutrients from the digestive tract * Metabolic wastes * Hormones from endocrine glands
198
How does blood regulate body temperature?
By absorbing and distributing heat
199
What is the primary function of erythrocytes?
Respiratory gas transport
200
What is the percentage of hemoglobin in erythrocytes?
More than 97%
201
What is the normal range of erythrocytes for males?
4.5-6.3 million/mm3
202
What hormone stimulates erythropoiesis?
Erythropoietin (EPO)
203
What triggers the release of erythropoietin?
* Hypoxia due to decreased RBCs * Decreased oxygen availability * Increased tissue demand for oxygen
204
What are the dietary requirements for erythropoiesis?
* Proteins * Lipids * Carbohydrates * Iron * Vitamin B12 * Folic acid
205
What is the lifespan of an erythrocyte?
100–120 days
206
What happens to old erythrocytes?
They become rigid and fragile, are engulfed by macrophages, and their components are recycled
207
What is anemia?
Blood has abnormally low oxygen carrying capacity
208
What are the signs and symptoms of anemia?
* Fatigue * Paleness * Shortness of breath * Chills
209
What is hemorrhagic anemia?
Result of acute or chronic loss of blood
210
What causes iron-deficiency anemia?
* Secondary result of hemorrhagic anemia * Inadequate intake of iron-containing foods * Impaired iron absorption
211
What is sickle-cell anemia caused by?
A defective gene coding for an abnormal hemoglobin called hemoglobin S (HbS)
212
What happens to hemoglobin in sickle-cell anemia?
RBCs become sickle-shaped in low oxygen situations
213
Fill in the blank: Blood accounts for approximately ______ of body weight.
8%
214
True or False: Only WBCs are complete cells in the formed elements of blood.
True
215
What is the primary component of blood plasma?
92% Water
216
What are the formed elements of blood?
* Erythrocytes (RBCs) * Leukocytes (WBCs) * Platelets
217
What is the role of hemoglobin in erythrocytes?
Functions in gas transport by binding to oxygen
218
What is hematopoiesis?
Blood cell formation
219
Where does hematopoiesis occur?
In the red bone marrow of the axial skeleton, girdles, and epiphyses of long bones
220
What is the role of hemocytoblasts?
They give rise to all formed elements
221
What is the first phase of erythropoiesis?
Ribosome synthesis in early erythroblasts
222
What is the significance of ATP generation in erythrocytes?
It is generated anaerobically, so erythrocytes do not consume the oxygen they transport
223
What is bilirubin?
A yellow pigment formed from the degradation of heme
224
How is bilirubin excreted from the body?
As a bile pigment into the intestines and then in feces
225
What is the role of globin after erythrocyte destruction?
Metabolized into amino acids and released into circulation
226
What is HbS?
A hemoglobin variant with a single amino acid substitution in the beta chain ## Footnote This defect causes RBCs to become sickle-shaped in low oxygen situations.
227
What is polycythemia?
Excess RBCs that increase blood viscosity ## Footnote Three main types include polycythemia vera, secondary polycythemia, and blood doping.
228
What percentage of total blood volume do leukocytes make up?
1% ## Footnote Leukocytes are the only blood components that are complete cells.
229
What is the normal range for leukocyte count?
4,800 – 10,800 cells/mm3
230
What is leukocytosis?
WBC count over 11,000 / mm3 ## Footnote It's a normal response to bacterial or viral invasion.
231
What is leukopenia?
WBC count below 5,000/mm3 ## Footnote It can result from bone marrow failure or as a side effect of drugs.
232
List the types of granulocytes.
* Neutrophils * Eosinophils * Basophils
233
What is the function of neutrophils?
Phagocytize foreign particles and are highly mobile
234
What percentage of WBCs do eosinophils account for?
1–4%
235
What is the primary role of eosinophils?
Counterattack against parasitic worms and lessen allergy severity
236
What do basophils contain?
Large, purplish-black granules that contain histamine ## Footnote Histamine acts as a vasodilator and attracts other WBCs.
237
What defines agranulocytes?
Lack visible cytoplasmic granules
238
What types of cells are lymphocytes?
* T cells * B cells
239
What is the function of T cells?
Function in the immune response
240
What do B cells give rise to?
Plasma cells, which produce antibodies
241
What do monocytes differentiate into?
Macrophages after leaving circulation and entering tissue
242
What stimulates leukopoiesis?
Interleukins and colony-stimulating factors (CSFs)
243
From what do all leukocytes originate?
Hemocytoblasts
244
What is leukemia?
Cancerous conditions involving WBCs
245
What are the two types of leukemia based on the abnormal WBCs involved?
* Myelogenous leukemia * Lymphocytic leukemia
246
What characterizes acute leukemia?
Involves blast-type cells and primarily affects children
247
What are platelets?
Fragments of megakaryocytes that function in clotting
248
What is hemostasis?
A series of reactions for stoppage of bleeding
249
List the three phases of hemostasis.
* Vascular spasms * Platelet plug formation * Coagulation
250
What occurs during platelet plug formation?
Platelets stick to exposed collagen fibers and release serotonin
251
What are the two pathways that lead to coagulation?
* Intrinsic pathway * Extrinsic pathway
252
What is the intrinsic pathway of coagulation?
Blood clots without any additional substance being added
253
What accelerates the extrinsic pathway of coagulation?
Damaged tissue adds a chemical (tissue factor)
254
What are the three layers of blood vessel walls?
* Tunica Interna/Intima * Tunica Media * Tunica Externa
255
What is the inner layer of blood vessels called?
Tunica Interna/Intima
256
What is the function of the Tunica Media?
Contains smooth muscle and elastin for vasoconstriction and vasodilation
257
What type of blood do arteries carry?
High pressure blood away from the heart (oxygenated and deoxygenated)
258
Name the two types of arteries.
* Elastic arteries * Muscular arteries
259
What are elastic arteries primarily responsible for?
Conducting blood, with high elasticity and elastin content
260
What is the role of arterioles?
Connect arteries to capillaries and control blood flow into capillaries
261
What are the three types of capillaries?
* Continuous * Fenestrated * Sinusoids
262
What is the defining feature of continuous capillaries?
Incomplete tight junctions and intercellular clefts
263
Where are fenestrated capillaries commonly found?
In special locations such as the kidneys and small intestine
264
What is the most permeable type of capillary?
Sinusoidal capillaries
265
What structure connects capillaries to veins?
Venules
266
What defines veins in terms of blood pressure?
Carry low pressure blood back to the heart
267
What feature do veins contain to prevent backflow?
Valves
268
List the circulation routes in the body.
* Cardiac * Pulmonary * Systemic * Portal * Fetal
269
What is the function of the pulmonary circuit?
Capillary beds of lungs where gas exchange occurs
270
What are the fetal modifications in circulation?
* One umbilical vein * Two umbilical arteries * Three vascular shunts (Ductus venosus, Foramen ovale, Ductus arteriosus)
271
What is blood pressure measured in?
mm of Hg
272
What factors affect blood pressure?
* Resistance * Velocity of blood flow * Elasticity of arteries
273
What are baroreceptors?
Receptors that respond to short-term changes in blood pressure
274
Where are baroreceptors located?
In aortic and carotid sinuses
275
What is the function of chemoreceptors?
Located in carotid and aortic bodies, they respond to changes in O2, pH, or CO2
276
What is the renin-angiotensin mechanism?
A long-term mechanism for regulating blood pressure
277
What is lymph?
Interstitial fluid that enters lymphatic capillaries
278
What drives ISF into lymphatic capillaries?
Increased ISF pressure
279
What are the structural features of lymphatic capillaries?
Blind-ended tubes with overlapping endothelial cells forming flaplike minivalves
280
What is the function of lymph nodes?
Filtering lymph and housing immune cells
281
What type of blood vessel has the lowest pressure?
Vein
282
Identify the most common type of capillary.
Continuous
283
Identify the shunt between the right and left atria.
Foramen ovale
284
Which vessel carries oxygenated blood to the fetus?
Umbilical vein
285
Where would blood pressure be the highest?
Artery
286
Which of the following factors do not increase resistance to blood flow?
Blood vessel diameter
287
In which of the following vessels would the velocity of blood flow least?
Capillary
288
Where is ISF derived from?
Plasma
289
Where is lymph derived from?
Interstitial fluid
290
What is the driving force for lymph production?
Blood pressure
291
Which of the following is NOT a function of the lymphatic system?
Circulate ISF
292
List the regional lymph node locations.
* Cervical * Axillary * Thoracic * Abdominal * Inguinal
293
What is the biggest lymphatic duct?
Thoracic duct
294
Into which vein does the thoracic duct empty?
Left Subclavian vein
295
Into which vein does the right lymphatic duct empty?
Right Subclavian vein
296
What structures are associated with the medulla of a lymph node?
* Medullary cord * Medullary sinus
297
What is the role of skeletal muscle movement in lymph flow?
It aids in lymph movement
298
What condition is caused by obstruction of lymph flow?
Lymphedema
299
What structures are found in the cortex of a lymph node?
* Lymphoid follicle * Germinal center * Subcapsular sinus
300
What are the components of the lymphatic system?
* Lymphatic trunks * Collecting ducts
301
What is the function of the reticular fibers in lymph nodes?
Support lymphocytes and macrophages
302
What is the term for the entrance of the thoracic duct into the vein?
Cisterna chyli

Semester 2 (9 decks)

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