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Semester 2 > Urinary System > Flashcards

Urinary System Flashcards

1
Q

Functions of the urinary system

A

Remove waste products from the blood
Production of urine
Regulation of blood volume electrolyte levels and pH
Secretion of renin and EPO

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2
Q

What are the main components of the urinary system?

A

Kidneys, Ureters, Bladder, Urethra

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3
Q

What is one of the primary functions of the urinary system?

A

Removal of waste products from the blood

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4
Q

Fill in the blank: The urinary system regulates blood volume, electrolyte levels, and _______.

A

pH

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5
Q

What hormone is secreted by the urinary system that helps regulate blood pressure?

A

Renin

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6
Q

What is the role of EPO in the urinary system?

A

Production of red blood cells

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7
Q

Describe the external anatomy surrounding each kidney.

A

Renal fascia, perirenal fat capsule, and the renal capsule

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8
Q

What are the two surfaces of the kidney?

A

Lateral convex surface, medial concave surface

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9
Q

What is the hilum of the kidney?

A

The medial concave surface that is continuous with the renal sinus

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10
Q

What are the three distinct regions of the kidneys?

A

Renal cortex, renal medulla, renal pelvis

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11
Q

What is contained within the renal cortex?

A

Nephrons

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12
Q

What is the function of the renal medulla?

A

Contains renal pyramids and collecting tubules

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13
Q

What is a renal pyramid?

A

A collection of collecting tubules with the base in contact with the cortex

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14
Q

What are renal papillae?

A

The tip of a renal pyramid

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15
Q

What are renal columns?

A

Regions of the medulla between renal pyramids

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16
Q

What is the renal pelvis?

A

Branching superior portion of the ureter that occupies the renal sinus

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17
Q

How many major calyces are typically found in the renal pelvis?

A

2-3 major calyces

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18
Q

What do minor calyces do?

A

Collect urine produced by a renal pyramid

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19
Q

What defines a lobe in the kidney?

A

A single renal pyramid with the cortical tissue contacting its base

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20
Q

What are the major components of the renal corpuscle?

A
  1. Glomerulus
  2. Bowman’s capsule (BC)

The renal corpuscle is the interface between the kidney and the blood, receiving filtrate from the blood.

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21
Q

What is the role of the glomerulus?

A

Capillary bed of fenestrated capillaries

The glomerulus is responsible for filtering blood to form urine.

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22
Q

Describe the composition of Bowman’s capsule.

A
  1. Visceral layer
  2. Parietal layer
  3. Capsular space

The visceral layer adheres to the outside of the glomerulus and contains podocytes.

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23
Q

What is the function of the visceral layer of Bowman’s capsule?

A

Adheres to the glomerulus and contains podocytes with filtration slits

Podocytes have extensions called pedicels that create filtration slits for blood filtration.

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24
Q

What type of epithelium composes the parietal layer of Bowman’s capsule?

A

Simple squamous epithelium

This layer forms the outer boundary of Bowman’s capsule.

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25
What are the two poles of Bowman's capsule?
1. Vascular pole 2. Tubular pole ## Footnote These poles are where blood enters and filtrate exits Bowman's capsule.
26
What are the major regions of the renal tubule?
1. Proximal convoluted tubule (PCT) 2. Descending limb of the loop of Henle 3. Ascending limb of the loop of Henle 4. Distal convoluted tubule (DCT) ## Footnote Each region plays a role in modifying the glomerular filtrate.
27
What is the function of the proximal convoluted tubule (PCT)?
Reabsorbs substances from the filtrate ## Footnote The PCT is lined with simple cuboidal epithelium with microvilli to increase surface area for reabsorption.
28
What does the descending limb of the loop of Henle do?
Descends towards the renal pelvis and has thick and thin regions ## Footnote This limb is involved in the concentration of urine.
29
What is the ascending limb of the loop of Henle characterized by?
Has a thin and thick region that ascends towards the renal cortex ## Footnote It plays a critical role in the counter-current multiplication system.
30
What is the location and function of the distal convoluted tubule (DCT)?
Coiled region located near the renal corpuscle; receives filtrate from the loop of Henle ## Footnote The DCT is involved in further modification of the filtrate.
31
What does the collecting tubule or collecting duct receive?
Filtrate from many nephrons ## Footnote Collecting ducts are crucial for urine concentration and transport.
32
What is the function of the papillary duct?
Conveys urine from the renal pyramid into a minor calyx ## Footnote The papillary duct is formed by the fusion of many collecting ducts.
33
Fill in the blank: Each kidney contains about ______ nephrons.
1 million ## Footnote Nephrons are the functional units of the kidney.
34
What is the function of the collecting tubule or collecting duct?
Receives filtrate from many nephrons
35
Where do the collecting ducts descend?
In a renal pyramid, traveling towards the renal
36
What is the papillary duct?
The fusion of many collecting ducts near the renal papilla
37
What do papillary ducts convey?
Urine from the renal pyramid into a minor calyx
38
Fill in the blank: The collecting system is involved in _______ conservation.
[water and salt]
39
What type of absorption occurs in the collecting system?
Variable absorption and active secretion
40
What is the role of microvilli in the proximal convoluted tubule?
Facilitates absorption
41
What is the glomerular epithelium?
The layer of cells in the glomerulus
42
What is the function of the distal convoluted tubule?
Involved in variable salt and water reabsorption
43
What type of epithelium is found in the ascending limb of the loop?
Columnar epithelium
44
What is the primary characteristic of cortical nephrons?
Most nephrons (80%) are contained in the cortex
45
What distinguishes cortical nephrons from juxtamedullary nephrons?
Cortical nephrons have shorter loops
46
What is the renal corpuscle?
The part of the nephron where filtration occurs
47
True or False: All nephrons have the same parts.
True
48
What is the main function of each individual nephron?
Each individual nephron must have its own blood supply (capillary bed) in order to make urine.
49
What is the pathway of blood supply into the kidney?
Aorta → Renal artery → Segmental arteries → Interlobar arteries → Arcuate arteries → Interlobular or Cortical radiate arteries
50
What are the components of blood supply to a nephron?
Afferent arteriole → Glomerulus → Efferent arteriole → Peritubular capillaries or Vasa recta
51
What is the pathway of blood exiting the kidney?
Interlobular or Cortical radiate veins → Arcuate veins → Interlobar veins → Renal vein → Inferior vena cava
52
How many times do the kidneys process the body's blood per day?
60 times per day
53
What are the three steps involved in urine formation?
* Filtration of substances out of the blood into the capsular space of Bowman's capsule * Reabsorption of some substances filtered from the nephron back into the blood * Secretion of substances from the blood directly into the renal tubule
54
What is the first step of urine formation?
Filtration of substances out of the blood and into the capsular space of Bowman's capsule
55
What is required for the process of filtration in urine formation?
Filtration requires 2 things: a filter and blood supply
56
Fill in the blank: The renal corpuscle is part of the _______.
[nephron]
57
True or False: The collecting duct is involved in the urine formation process.
True
58
What are the two types of capillaries associated with a nephron?
* Peritubular capillaries * Vasa recta
59
What is the role of the distal convoluted tubule in urine formation?
It is involved in the reabsorption and secretion of substances.
60
What structure in the kidney is responsible for filtering blood to form urine?
Glomerulus
61
Fill in the blank: The minor calyx collects urine from the renal _______.
[papilla]
62
What is the process of reabsorption in the nephron?
Reabsorption of some of the substances that got filtered from the nephron back into the blood ## Footnote This process is essential for retaining necessary substances and maintaining homeostasis.
63
What is the function of secretion in the renal tubule?
Secretion of substances from the blood directly into the renal tubule ## Footnote This process helps in the elimination of waste products and regulation of electrolytes.
64
What are the two requirements for filtration in the kidneys?
1. Filtration membrane 2. A driving force that makes filtration occur ## Footnote The filtration membrane consists of the fenestrated glomerular capillary wall and the visceral layer of Bowman's capsule.
65
What is the filtration membrane composed of?
1. Fenestrated glomerular capillary wall 2. Visceral layer of Bowman's capsule ## Footnote These components create a porous boundary between the blood and the capsular space.
66
Define net filtration pressure (NFP).
Net filtration pressure (NFP) is the driving force for filtration in the kidneys, influenced by various factors that can either drive or reduce filtration ## Footnote Understanding NFP is crucial for comprehending how kidneys filter blood.
67
True or False: The filtration membrane is impermeable.
False ## Footnote The filtration membrane is porous, allowing certain substances to pass through while retaining others.
68
Fill in the blank: Filtration requires a _______ and a driving force.
[filtration membrane] ## Footnote The driving force for filtration is typically blood pressure.
69
What are the two locations that affect Net Filtration Pressure (NFP)?
Inside the glomerulus and inside the capsular space
70
What are the two main pressures that influence NFP?
Hydrostatic pressure and osmotic pressure
71
What is the primary driving force for filtration in the glomerulus?
Glomerular hydrostatic pressure
72
True or False: Glomerular hydrostatic pressure opposes filtration.
False
73
What does osmotic pressure do in relation to filtration?
Resists filtration by attracting water to stay in the glomerulus
74
What happens to proteins during filtration in the glomerulus?
Proteins are too large to be filtered
75
How does the concentration of blood change as water gets filtered?
Blood becomes very concentrated with protein
76
Fill in the blank: The average Glomerular Filtration Rate (GFR) is ______ ml/minute.
125
77
How many times is all the plasma filtered through the kidneys?
About 60 times per day
78
What effect does an obstruction in the renal tubule have on filtration?
It can stop filtration
79
What is the theoretical osmotic pressure of Bowman's Capsule (BC)?
Should equal zero
80
True or False: The osmotic pressure of Bowman's Capsule attracts water using osmosis.
False
81
What does GFR stand for?
Glomerular filtration rate
82
What is the average rate of glomerular filtration?
125 ml/minute
83
How many times is all the plasma filtered through the kidneys per day?
About 60 times
84
Why is regulation of GFR necessary?
To remove wastes from the blood at the same rate they are produced
85
What happens if the filtration rate decreases?
Wastes build up in the blood, which can threaten life
86
What specialized region is involved in GFR regulation?
Juxtaglomerular complex (JGC)
87
What are the components of the Juxtaglomerular complex?
* Granular cells * Macula densa
88
What do granular cells in the JGC sense?
Blood pressure
89
What does the macula densa sense?
NaCl content of the filtrate
90
What is autoregulation in the context of GFR?
The renal corpuscle's ability to adapt to blood pressure changes to keep GFR stable
91
What are the two autoregulatory mechanisms for GFR?
* Myogenic mechanism * Tubuloglomerular feedback mechanism
92
What occurs during the myogenic mechanism when blood pressure is high?
Vasoconstriction to reduce the GFR
93
What occurs during the myogenic mechanism when blood pressure is low?
Vasodilation to increase the GFR
94
What does the macula densa do when NaCl concentration is high?
Causes vasoconstriction of the afferent arteriole
95
What does the macula densa do when NaCl concentration is low?
Causes vasodilation of the afferent arteriole
96
What role does renin play in hormonal regulation of GFR?
Converts angiotensinogen to angiotensin I
97
Where is angiotensin I converted to angiotensin II?
In the lungs
98
True or False: High blood pressure leads to vasodilation of the afferent arterioles.
False
99
What stimulates Na+ retention in the DCT?
Aldosterone ## Footnote Aldosterone is released by the adrenal cortex.
100
What effect does constriction of the efferent arteriole have on GFR?
Increases the GFR ## Footnote GFR stands for Glomerular Filtration Rate.
101
What is the primary function of the PICT?
Reabsorption of Na+ and water ## Footnote PICT stands for Proximal Convoluted Tubule.
102
What happens to blood pressure during the release of aldosterone?
Drop in blood pressure ## Footnote Aldosterone helps regulate blood pressure through sodium retention.
103
What is angiotensinogen and how long is it?
A protein that is 453 amino acids long ## Footnote Angiotensinogen is produced by the liver.
104
What is formed from angiotensinogen by renin?
Angiotensin I ## Footnote Angiotensin I is 10 amino acids long.
105
What enzyme converts angiotensin I to angiotensin II?
Angiotensin-converting enzyme ## Footnote This conversion occurs primarily in the lungs.
106
What is the length of angiotensin II?
8 amino acids long ## Footnote Angiotensin II plays a crucial role in blood pressure regulation.
107
What are two effects of angiotensin II?
Vasoconstriction and salt and water retention ## Footnote These effects elevate blood pressure.
108
What does the constriction of the efferent arteriole do to glomerular blood pressure?
Increases glomerular blood pressure ## Footnote This helps maintain filtration despite low systemic blood pressure.
109
What is the outcome of tubular reabsorption increasing?
Urine volume is less but concentration is high ## Footnote This indicates more substances are being retained by the body.
110
What is the role of the nervous system during a crisis intervention?
Responds to acute changes in blood pressure ## Footnote This can involve constriction of arterioles and changes in GFR.
111
What does glomerular filtrate consist of?
Fluid that enters the capsular space in Bowman's Capsule ## Footnote The composition includes water, electrolytes, and small molecules.
112
What does the nervous system do in response to an acute fall in blood pressure?
Triggers a fight or flight response leading to vasoconstriction of the afferent arteriole and decrease in GFR ## Footnote GFR stands for Glomerular Filtration Rate, which is essential for kidney function.
113
What is the composition of the glomerular filtrate?
Consists of: * Water * Glucose * Amino acids * Urea * Uric acid * Creatinine * Electrolytes ## Footnote Glomerular filtrate is the fluid that enters the capsular space in Bowman's capsule.
114
What is tubular reabsorption?
Process by which substances are transported from the glomerular filtrate into the blood of the peritubular capillary ## Footnote This process mainly occurs in the proximal convoluted tubule (PCT).
115
Where does most tubular reabsorption occur?
Mainly in the proximal convoluted tubule (PCT) ## Footnote Microvilli in the PCT increase the surface area for reabsorption.
116
Which substance is reabsorbed by active transport in the PCT?
Glucose ## Footnote Glucose reabsorption requires carriers and is limited by the renal threshold.
117
What happens if the amount of glucose in the filtrate exceeds the carriers' capacity?
It will appear in the urine ## Footnote This phenomenon is related to the renal threshold for glucose.
118
Fill in the blank: The carriers that transport glucose in the PCT limit the amount of glucose that can be reabsorbed, known as the _______.
renal threshold ## Footnote The renal threshold is a critical concept in understanding glucose metabolism and kidney function.
119
What is the process by which amino acids are reabsorbed in the kidneys?
Active transport ## Footnote Amino acids are actively transported back into the bloodstream during tubular reabsorption.
120
What percentage of sodium reabsorption occurs in the PCT?
70% ## Footnote Sodium reabsorption in the proximal convoluted tubule (PCT) primarily happens through active transport.
121
How are negatively charged ions reabsorbed in the PCT?
Passively reabsorbed ## Footnote Negatively charged ions are attracted to positively charged sodium ions (Na+) during reabsorption.
122
What is the mechanism of water reabsorption in the PCT?
Osmosis ## Footnote Water is reabsorbed passively by osmosis, while the distal convoluted tubule (DCT) is impermeable to water without ADH.
123
What occurs at the countercurrent exchange in the Loop of Henle?
Reabsorption of Na+ and water ## Footnote The Loop of Henle facilitates additional reabsorption of sodium and water.
124
What is the permeability of the descending limb of the Loop of Henle?
Permeable to water, impermeable to solutes ## Footnote The descending limb allows water to pass but not solutes.
125
What is the function of the ascending limb of the Loop of Henle?
Actively transports Na+ and Cl- out ## Footnote The ascending limb is impermeable to water, facilitating the active transport of sodium and chloride ions.
126
What effect does salt reabsorption in the ascending limb have on the interstitial fluid?
Makes it very concentrated ## Footnote This concentration gradient increases water reabsorption from the descending limb.
127
What is the main solute entering the distal convoluted tubule (DCT)?
Urea ## Footnote Urea is the primary solute that enters the DCT for further processing.
128
What is tubular secretion?
Transport of larger solutes from blood into renal tubule ## Footnote Tubular secretion eliminates waste products and excess ions like K+ and H+.
129
Fill in the blank: Tubular secretion eliminates undesirable substances such as _______.
waste products, K+, H+ ## Footnote These substances are secreted into the renal tubule from the blood.
130
What is tubular secretion?
Transport of larger solutes that are wastes from the blood into the renal tubule ## Footnote Eliminates undesirable substances such as waste products, K+, and H+
131
What are the typical components of urine?
* Water * Urea (from amino acid metabolism) * Uric acid (from nucleic acid metabolism) * Creatinine (from creatine metabolism) * Electrolytes ## Footnote Composition varies based on dietary intake and physical activity
132
What is the usual volume of urine produced per day?
0.6 - 2.5 L per day ## Footnote Influenced by factors such as fluid intake, environmental temperature, humidity, body temperature, and respiratory rate
133
What is the function of the ureters?
Conduct urine from the kidneys to the bladder ## Footnote The ureters are muscular tubes that transport urine
134
What structures are found in the renal pelvis?
* Minor calyces * Major calyces ## Footnote Minor calyces connect to each renal papilla; major calyces are 2-3 branches where minor calyces arise
135
What are the layers of the ureter wall?
* Outer layer: visceral peritoneum (serosa) * Middle layer: smooth muscle * Inner layer: transitional epithelium ## Footnote Smooth muscle facilitates peristalsis to move urine into the bladder
136
True or False: The ureteral openings in the bladder are protected by flap-like valves.
True
137
Fill in the blank: The process of eliminating undesirable substances into the renal tubule is known as _______.
tubular secretion
138
What is tubular secretion?
Transport of larger solutes that are wastes from the blood into the renal tubule ## Footnote Eliminates undesirable substances such as waste products, K+, and H+
139
What are the typical components of urine?
* Water * Urea (from amino acid metabolism) * Uric acid (from nucleic acid metabolism) * Creatinine (from creatine metabolism) * Electrolytes ## Footnote Composition varies based on dietary intake and physical activity
140
What is the usual volume of urine produced per day?
0.6 - 2.5 L per day ## Footnote Influenced by factors such as fluid intake, environmental temperature, humidity, body temperature, and respiratory rate
141
What is the function of the ureters?
Conduct urine from the kidneys to the bladder ## Footnote The ureters are muscular tubes that transport urine
142
What structures are found in the renal pelvis?
* Minor calyces * Major calyces ## Footnote Minor calyces connect to each renal papilla; major calyces are 2-3 branches where minor calyces arise
143
What are the layers of the ureter wall?
* Outer layer: visceral peritoneum (serosa) * Middle layer: smooth muscle * Inner layer: transitional epithelium ## Footnote Smooth muscle facilitates peristalsis to move urine into the bladder
144
True or False: The ureteral openings in the bladder are protected by flap-like valves.
True
145
Fill in the blank: The process of eliminating undesirable substances into the renal tubule is known as _______.
tubular secretion
146
What is the urinary bladder?
A hollow, distensible organ that stores urine until it is released from the body ## Footnote The bladder wall is composed of four layers: visceral peritoneum, detrusor muscle, submucosa (lamina propria), and transitional epithelium.
147
What are the four layers of the bladder wall?
* Outer layer - visceral peritoneum (serosa) * 3rd layer - smooth muscle (detrusor muscle) * 2nd layer - submucosa (lamina propria) * Inner layer - transitional epithelium ## Footnote Each layer has a specific structure and function contributing to bladder function.
148
What is the function of the urethra?
A muscular tube that conveys urine from the bladder to exit the body ## Footnote The urethra has both an internal and external sphincter to regulate urine flow.
149
What are the types of urethral sphincters?
* Internal urethral sphincter - smooth muscle (involuntary) * External urethral sphincter - skeletal muscle (voluntary) ## Footnote The internal sphincter is controlled autonomously, while the external sphincter is under voluntary control.
150
What is micturition?
Urination; a reflex initiated voluntarily ## Footnote Involves relaxation of the external urethral sphincter and contraction of the bladder.
151
How is micturition initiated?
The decision to urinate leads to relaxation of the external urethral sphincter ## Footnote This triggers a parasympathetic reflex causing bladder contraction and internal sphincter relaxation.
152
What is incontinence?
Inability to control the exit of urine from the body ## Footnote It can result from various medical conditions affecting the urinary system.
153
What are the three main compartments of body fluids?
* Intracellular fluid * Extracellular fluid * Plasma * Interstitial fluid (ISF) ## Footnote Body fluids are essential for various physiological processes.
154
What factors influence body water content?
Sex, weight, age ## Footnote These factors affect hydration levels and fluid distribution in the body.
155
How is water intake regulated?
By the hypothalamus triggering feelings of thirst when blood concentration increases ## Footnote This regulatory mechanism helps maintain fluid balance.
156
What is dehydration?
Water loss exceeds water intake over a period of time ## Footnote Common causes include vomiting, diarrhea, excessive perspiration, and burns.
157
158
What is dehydration?
Water loss exceeds water intake over a period of time. ## Footnote Can be caused by vomiting, diarrhea, excessive perspiration, burns, hemorrhage.
159
What is hypotonic hydration?
Intake of an excessive amount of water over a short period of time, leading to diluted ECF and swelling of cells/organs. ## Footnote Also known as water intoxication; can occur due to kidney failure or pica.
160
What is edema?
Water retention in ISF. ## Footnote ISF stands for interstitial fluid.
161
What are inorganic compounds?
Include water, salts, and many acids and bases.
162
Define acid.
A substance that dissociates in H2O to release H+, known as a proton donor. ## Footnote Acids increase H+ concentration in solution.
163
Define base.
A substance that accepts free H+ in solution, reducing the amount of H+. ## Footnote Bases usually dissociate into OH (hydroxyl ion) that accepts H+ to make H2O.
164
What is the relationship between acids and H+ concentration?
Acids increase H+ concentration in solution.
165
What is the relationship between bases and H+ concentration?
Bases decrease H+ concentration in solution.
166
What is pH?
A measurement of H+ ions in solution, calculated as pH = -log [H+].
167
What is the pH scale range?
Ranges from 0 to 14.
168
Why is pH a regulated variable in the body?
A change in pH will change the structure of proteins and affect biochemical reactions.
169
What does the pH scale indicate?
The pH scale indicates the possible solutions to the pH equation, ranging from 0-14.
170
What is the pH range for acidic solutions?
[H*] > [OH] * 0-6.9
171
What is the pH level for neutral solutions?
[H+] = [OH:] * 7.0
172
What is the pH range for basic solutions?
[OH] > [H*] * 7.1 - 14
173
What are chemical buffers?
Short-term responses to potential pH changes performed by available substances.
174
Do chemical buffer systems prevent pH changes?
No, they cannot prevent pH changes but try to reduce them to a minimum.
175
What are the characteristics of chemical buffer systems?
* Depend on substances present in the vicinity * Short term * Fast * Weak solutions to a long-term issue
176
What is the bicarbonate buffer system?
H2CO3 (carbonic acid) can combine with a strong base making it weaker; NaHCO3 (sodium bicarbonate) can combine with an acid to make it weaker.
177
What is the phosphate buffer system important for?
It is important for buffering urine.
178
What reaction does monohydrogen phosphate undergo in the phosphate buffer system?
HPO4^2- + H+ < > H2PO4^-
179
How do protein buffer systems work?
Exposed amino acids in a protein can buffer by undergoing reactions with H+.
180
What is the formula for the reaction of NH2 with H+ in protein buffer systems?
NH2 + H+ < → NH3+
181
What is the formula for the reaction of COOH with H+ in protein buffer systems?
COOH < → COO- + H+
182
What are physiologic buffer systems?
Longer-term compensation for pH changes that have occurred.
183
How do physiologic buffer systems differ from chemical buffer systems?
They take longer to start working and have more lasting effects.
184
Fill in the blank: Chemical buffer systems are a _______ response to pH changes.
short-term
185
Fill in the blank: Physiologic buffer systems are a _______ mechanism for controlling acid-base balance.
long-term
186
What are the two main types of physiologic buffer systems?
Respiratory mechanisms and renal mechanisms ## Footnote Physiologic buffer systems take longer to compensate for pH changes compared to chemical buffers.
187
What happens to H2CO3 when there is an increase in CO2?
It will dissociate into H+ and HCO3* ## Footnote This process contributes to the regulation of pH in the body.
188
What stimulates increased breathing rate and depth in response to increased H+ in CSF?
Chemoreceptors in the medulla ## Footnote Increased H+ levels indicate a need to expel CO2 and correct pH.
189
Fill in the blank: When H+ is secreted into the renal tubule, it can combine with _______ to form NH4*.
NH3 (ammonia) ## Footnote This reaction helps in trapping ammonium in the urine.
190
True or False: Physiologic buffer systems prevent pH changes.
False ## Footnote They correct pH changes that have already occurred.
191
What is the role of increased H+ in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)?
It stimulates chemoreceptors to increase breathing rate and depth ## Footnote This is part of the body's response to maintain acid-base balance.
192
How do respiratory mechanisms contribute to acid-base regulation?
By increasing the rate and depth of breathing to expel CO2 ## Footnote This helps to lower the concentration of carbonic acid in the body.
193
What is the end product when ammonia combines with H+ in the renal tubule?
Ammonium (NH4*) ## Footnote This process aids in the excretion of excess H+ ions.
194
What are the two main classifications of abnormalities of acid-base balance?
Metabolic or respiratory ## Footnote These classifications help in diagnosing the underlying causes of acid-base imbalances.
195
What is the normal pH range of arterial blood?
7.35 to 7.45 ## Footnote Values outside this range indicate acidosis or alkalosis.
196
What pH level indicates acidosis?
Less than 7.0 ## Footnote Acidosis is characterized by an increased concentration of H+ ions.
197
What occurs to the pH when there is an increased concentration of H+?
pH drops ## Footnote This results in a state of acidosis.
198
What pH level indicates alkalosis?
Greater than 7.8 ## Footnote Alkalosis is characterized by a decreased concentration of H+ ions.
199
What happens to the pH when there is a decreased concentration of H+?
pH rises ## Footnote This results in a state of alkalosis.
200
What are some causes of respiratory acidosis?
* Decreased rate of breathing * Decreased depth of breathing * Obstruction of air passageways * Decreased gas exchange ## Footnote These factors can lead to an accumulation of CO2 in the body.
201
What is one potential cause of respiratory alkalosis?
Hyperventilation ## Footnote This leads to excessive loss of CO2.
202
Name a physiological condition that could cause decreased gas exchange.
Fever ## Footnote Fever can increase metabolic rate, affecting gas exchange.
203
What psychological condition can contribute to respiratory alkalosis?
Anxiety ## Footnote Anxiety may lead to hyperventilation, causing excessive loss of CO2.
204
Fill in the blank: The survival range for arterial blood pH is _______.
7.0 to 7.8 ## Footnote Values outside this range can be life-threatening.
205
What is the impact of altitude on acid-base balance?
It can lead to respiratory alkalosis due to decreased oxygen availability and hyperventilation ## Footnote High altitude can cause an increase in breathing rate.
206
What is the cause of Respiratory Acidosis?
Decreased rate and depth of breathing, accumulation of CO2 in the blood ## Footnote Symptoms include depression of CNS, drowsiness, disorientation, stupor, fever, anxiety, and poisoning.
207
What are the symptoms of Respiratory Acidosis?
Depression of CNS, drowsiness, disorientation, stupor, fever, anxiety, poisoning ## Footnote Symptoms are indicative of increased CO2 levels.
208
What is the cause of Respiratory Alkalosis?
Hyperventilation, decrease in concentration of H2CO3 and H+ ## Footnote Symptoms include lightheadedness, agitation, dizziness, and tingling sensations.
209
What are the symptoms of Respiratory Alkalosis?
Lightheadedness, agitation, dizziness, tingling sensations ## Footnote These symptoms arise due to decreased CO2 in the blood.
210
What causes Metabolic Alkalosis?
Gastric drainage, vomiting with loss of gastric secretions, net increase in alkaline substances ## Footnote This condition results from excessive loss of acids.
211
What are the causes of Metabolic Acidosis?
Kidney failure to excrete acids, excessive production of keto acids, accumulation of nonrespiratory acids ## Footnote This includes conditions like diabetes mellitus.
212
What is the physiological response in Metabolic Acidosis?
Increase in breathing rate and depth ## Footnote This response helps to reduce CO2 levels in the blood.
213
What leads to a decrease in breathing rate and depth?
Respiratory Acidosis ## Footnote This condition results from an accumulation of CO2 in the blood.
214
What happens during prolonged diarrhea?
Excessive loss of bases, leading to Metabolic Acidosis ## Footnote Prolonged vomiting can also cause a loss of alkaline intestinal secretions.
215
Fill in the blank: Excessive loss of bases can result in _______.
Metabolic Acidosis
216
True or False: Lightheadedness and agitation are symptoms of Metabolic Alkalosis.
False ## Footnote These symptoms are associated with Respiratory Alkalosis.
217
What is the relationship between CO2 levels and breathing rate in Respiratory Acidosis?
Increase in CO2 leads to decreased breathing rate ## Footnote This is a compensatory mechanism in response to acid-base imbalances.

Semester 2 (8 decks)

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