Case studies - Physical Geography Flashcards
(41 cards)
1995 Monseratt volcanic eruption facts
- the carrilleon - 12 miles Long, 3km wide
prediction aims to pinpoint the when and where of a hazard event
forecasting provides a probability of an event occurring within a specific timeframe.
Located:
- Boundary between carribean and North American Plate - destuctive plate margin (more damaging)
- section of the island known as soufrère hill
affected, with 50% Population evacuated to the North
stratovolcano (also known as a composite volcano)
Stats:
- 23 died In 1997
- 2/3 island covered in ash
- Port + Aport closed + farmland destroyed +
- Forest fires started due to pyroclastic flows
- £41 million given in aid by British government
Prediction:
- The Montserrat Volcano Observatory (MVO) was established in 1996, providing monitoring and early warnings for next eruption (also a long term response)
- Scientists used seismometers, gas sensors, and satellite imaging to track changes.
Preparedness
- Initially limited, but improved over time.
- Emergency plans and evacuation routes were developed as risk increased.
- By mid-1997, evacuation drills and hazard maps were in place.
- However, the initial response was slow, and some residents were caught off-guard by the major eruption in June 1997
Short-Term Responses:
- Evacuation of over 7,000 people, mainly from the south
- British Navy and aid agencies helped transport evacuees and deliver emergency supplies.
- Temporary shelters/housing set up in the north of the island and buildings reinforced
- Exclusion zone established around the volcano to prevent access to dangerous areas.
- Ash and debris cleared where possible.
Long-Term Responses:
- UK government provided over £420 million in aid over several years.
- New infrastructure built in the north, including a new capital (Little Bay) and airport.
- Incentives and support for people to relocate, both within Montserrat and to the UK.
- Long-term rebuilding of economy, focusing on tourism and geothermal energy.
Criticisms:
- Early response seen as slow by locals.
- Many people were left in temporary shelters for years.
- Economic decline and mass emigration (population fell by over 60%).
2010 Haiti earthquake
Tuesday 12th January 2010
Located:
15 miles southwest of Haitian capital Port -au- Prince.
Stats:
Magnitude 7.0 - followed by two aftershocks
magnitude 5.9 and 5.5
220,000 killed, 300,000 injured, 1.5m became homeless
North American plate sliding past Caribbean Plate - conservative plate margin
Focus on 5miles (depth)
Transport + communication damaged, Poor Sanitation + health, looting occured
80 % of population live on $2 or less per day
Prediction:
No prediction systems in place before the earthquake.
Preparation:
Infrastructure was weak.
70% of the population lived in informal housing with no earthquake-resistant design.
The capital, Port-au-Prince, had poor building codes, with buildings constructed from substandard materials.
Haiti had no national emergency response plan or efficient disaster management system in place.
Lack of public education on disaster risk meant many were unaware of how to react during an earthquake.
Mitigation:
20% buildings were earthquake resistant
Short-Term Responses:
International aid provided food, water, and medical care.
US sent 3,500 troops to help.
Temporary shelters set up for over 800,000 people.
Emergency hospitals and rescue teams deployed.
Long-Term Responses:
$100 million pledged by the World Bank; debt relief given.
Reconstruction of hospitals, schools, and housing.
IGO’s attempt to improve building standards/building codes and disaster management plans.
NGOs ran clean water, health, and employment schemes.
Criticisms:
Poor coordination and slow aid delivery.
Over-reliance on foreign aid.
Many still in camps years later.
Challenges such as poverty (80% of the population) and political instability slowed progress.
Ongoing efforts to create more earthquake-resistant infrastructure, but much remains to be done.
11th of March 2011 Japan Earthquake and tsunami
Location:
- Tohoku - 100km off the coast of Japan
- Japan is located on the Pacific Ring of Fire (75% earthquakes occur here)
Stats:
- Magnitude 9.0 - 5th strongest globally
- Focus 25km /15 miles
- 18,000-20,000 killed, 6000 Injured, 300,000 homeless
- Convergent plate boundary - oceanic pacific
Plate is subducted beneath Eurasian plate
Prediction:
- Cannot predict earthquakes directly
- A highly advanced seismic monitoring system
- Over 1,000 seismometers and early warning systems
- Alerts were sent to phones and TV stations seconds before the shaking began
Preparedness:
- Strict building codes meant many structures withstood the quake.
- Regular earthquake drills and public education campaigns.
- Tsunami warning systems were in place, but failed to anticipate the 10–40m waves.
- Evacuation shelters existed, but many were overwhelmed or destroyed.
Response:
- Good Education/training for earthquakes
- Good initial preparedness but slow/uncoordinated response from government
Short-Term Responses:
Automatic shutdown of 11 nuclear plants occurred, but Fukushima was overwhelmed by the tsunami, leading to a radiation crisis.
100,000 soldiers sent for rescue.
70,000 emergency shelters/temporary homes costing = £144 bn
120 countries provided aid
Nuclear evacuation zones set up.
Quick clearance of roads and airports = 25 million tonnes of debris moved
Long-Term Responses:
$300 billion reconstruction plan.
Improved sea walls and warning systems.
Stricter building codes and regular drills for nuclear plants
Mental health and community support.
Criticisms:
Delays at Fukushima nuclear plant.
Communities disrupted by relocation.
2011 Japan Tsunami – Summary
Date & Cause: 11 March 2011, caused by a magnitude 9.0 earthquake at a destructive plate boundary.
Tsunami: Waves up to 40m high, reached the coast in 30 minutes.
Reached 10km inland
Prediction:
The previous earthquake generated a tsunami
that although was predicted still overwhelmed the defences leading to large impacts suggesting that the magnitude of the event can affect the usefulness of the prediction.
Primary Effects:
16,000 deaths, 6000 injured over 330,000 buildings damaged.
Fukushima nuclear meltdown, radiation released.
Secondary Effects:
300,000+ displaced, radiation contamination.
$235 billion in economic losses.
Short-Term Responses:
100,000 soldiers sent for rescue.
Evacuations, emergency shelters, and international aid.
Long-Term Responses:
$300 billion reconstruction plan.
Sea walls, early warning systems, and stricter nuclear regulations.
Evaluation:
Fast and organised response due to Japan’s development.
Failures included underestimating tsunami size and nuclear risk.
2010 Eyjafjallajokull (E15) Iceland volcanic eruption
Location:
Constructive plate boundary between North American and Eurasian plate (less damaging)
Stats:
Glacier above the volcano caused flooding over 100x capacity
Stopped 100,000 jets in Europe
Horticulture cost £3million a day and Europe lost $2.6 billion GDP
Ash made fertile Soil
stratovolcano (also known as a composite volcano)
Prediction:
The volcano was closely monitored by the Icelandic Meteorological Office using:
- Seismometers (to detect earthquakes)
- GPS and ground deformation sensors
- Gas detectors and satellite imagery
Preparedness:
Emergency response plans were in place, including evacuation procedures.
Local residents near the volcano were evacuated quickly (approx. 800 people).
The air traffic authorities were prepared to monitor and respond to ash cloud risks.
Primary impacts:
flows, pyroclastic flows, ash falls, gas eruptions
Secondary impacts:
lahars and jökulhlaups
Short-Term Responses:
Over 100,000 flights cancelled to avoid ash cloud damage to aircraft.
Airspace closed across much of Europe for 6 days.
700 Local residents evacuated due to ashfall and flooding from glacial melt.
Emergency services provided masks and shelter for locals.
Long-Term Responses:
Volcanic ash monitoring improved with satellite and radar systems.
Ash contaminated water and caused respiratory illness
Development of international aviation protocols for ash clouds.
Rebuilding and cleanup efforts in farming areas.
Tourism promoted after eruption to support local economy = Year after eruption tourist centre was built in Iceland
Criticisms:
Some argued the airspace closure was too cautious.
High economic cost – airlines lost around $1.7 billion.
Global sea level rise (Eustatic) case study?
Maldives - 50 cm sea level rise would permanently flood 77% of the Maldive Islands’ land area.
Average height of 2m with the highest point being 2.4m
What are the Maldives doing to solve these issues:
Large concrete sea walls, like the one around Malé (the capital city), walls offer protection but disrupt natural sediment movement and potentially affect adjacent areas.
The creation of Hulhumalé, a reclaimed artificial island, provides a higher elevation for development and housing, offering a safer location for residents which is 4 m above sea level and cost $32 million to construct.
Breakwaters can be built to protect coastal areas from wave action, reducing erosion and flooding
Mangrove restoration
Netherlands
27% of the country is below sea level and protected by sea defences
What are the Netherlands doing to stop this:
Building storm surge barriers across river mouths - Thames Barrier, Eastern Scheldt Barrier in the Netherlands (part of the 2.5 billion euro project begun after the 1953 storm surge)
Bangladesh
A 40 cm sea level rise would permanently submerge 11% of Bangladesh = 60% of country is less than 3m above sea level
10% of the land is 1m or less above sea level
The coastline is over 600km long
Tropical cyclones and storms are common
In 2007 Bangladesh was hit by Cyclone Sidr
The accompanying storm surge reached 6m high in some areas
The social and economic losses were significant and included:
Over 3,400 deaths - 1000 from waterborne diseases
Over 55,000 injuries
9 million homeless
Total economic losses were estimated to be US$2.31 billion
Roads, bridges and other infrastructure suffered significant damage
Short term response:
food aid
free seed given to farmers
Long term response:
build embankments
build raised flood shelters
flood warning systems implemented
emergency planning
dams planned
reduce deforestation
Coastal flooding (locally) case study?
Miford On Sea
Experiencing Sea level rise and greater frequency and magnitude of storms due to Climate Change
The beach at Milford is extremely volatile (rapidly changing) and very little sediment is transported here due to the groynes to the west. The beach is not visible at low tide and vulnerable to storm surges and storm tides
More destructive waves, caused by storms of greater magnitude,are removing sediment from the narrow shingle beach
The sea wall and other concrete structures are deflecting the waves back on to the beach which is removing more shingle
The sea wall is in danger of being undermined as shingle is eroded from its base (scouring)
Flooding is more likely to occur at Hurst Castle Spit because LSD is severely impacted by the groynes at Milford
Deposition case studies for coasts
Spit = Holderness coast
Bayhead beach = Lulworth cove
Sand dunes = anywhere with marram grass/vegetation to stabilise
Weathering landforms
Talus scree slope = St Oswald’s slope
Rotational scar slope
A terraced cliff profile
Submergent landforms
River Fowey estuary in Cornwall
Fjords in Norway
Dalmation coast
Sedimentary rocks
Shales
Sandstone
Limestone
Metamorphic rocks
Slate
Marble
Igneous rocks
Granite
Basalt
How is the UK still experiencing isostatic recovery
Land in the North in Scotland is still rebounding and rising by 1.5mm a year
How is Vegetation being affected?
50% salt marshes and 35% mangroves lost since 1950
In the UK salt marshes reduce wave height by up to 80%
100m of mangroves = reduce wave height by 13-66%
How much have sea levels rose globally?
21-24cm according to the national oceanic and atmospheric administration (NOAA)
What was the rate of sea level rise in the 1900s compared to 2006?
1.4mm a year
3.6mm since 2006
What does ICZM mean?
Inter coastal zone management = sustainable coastal management
What has the ICZM done in Semarang?
In Semarang, Indonesia ICZM has been implemented to reduce the risk of:
- Coastal flooding
- Subsidence
- Increased salinity
Structural:
- Embankments
- Pumping stations
- Drainage systems
- Land reclamation
Non-structural:
- Education
- Coastal planning
Ecosystem:
- Conservation of mangrove ecosystems
- Replanting mangrove ecosystems
What do DEFRA do?
Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs
Make decisions regarding:
Hold the line
Advance the line
Managed retreat
Do nothing
Have to consider:
The value of the land and assets as well as technical viability of management strategies
This can lead to local conflict because the SMP protects some areas and not others
In Skipsea on the Holderness coastal erosion rates since 1989 have been 1.4m per year on average
People in Skipsea feel that nothing has been done to protect their village with a population of 700 whilst money has been spent on coastal defences in neighbouring towns and villages
The decisions were made as a result of cost-benefit analysis
How many people does Coastal management affect?
Coastal management affects the lives of the 630 million people who live in coastal areas at risk of coastal flooding
What is the Devensian Glacial?
Last glacial period in Britain
Holderness coast
Location: East Yorkshire, northeast England.
Geology: Soft boulder clay cliffs (glacial till) prone to rapid erosion and slumping.
Wave Action: Strong destructive waves from the North Sea; long fetch increases energy.
Longshore Drift: Moves material southward, causing sediment starvation in some areas.
Key Stats:
Erosion rate: Average 1.8m/year, can exceed 10m/year in storms = fastest rate in Europe
Over 30 villages lost since Roman times.
Mappleton: £2 million defences to protect 50 properties.
Easington Gas Terminal: Supplies 25% of UK gas—heavily protected.
Management Strategies:
Mappleton (1991):
2 rock groynes + rock revetments to reduce wave energy and retain beach material.
Easington: Protected with rock armour due to national importance.
Spurn Head: Now mostly managed retreat due to high defence costs.
Flamborough Head: Chalk cliffs naturally resistant—less intervention needed.
Evaluation:
Defences protect key areas but cause increased erosion further down the coast (e.g. terminal groyne syndrome).
Full protection is too costly and unsustainable.
Guided by Shoreline Management Plan (SMP):
Hold the line in important locations.
Managed retreat elsewhere.
Criticisms of DEFRA:
In Skipsea on the Holderness coastal erosion rates since 1989 have been 1.4m per year on average
People in Skipsea feel that nothing has been done to protect their village with a population of 700 whilst money has been spent on coastal defences in neighbouring towns and villages
The decisions were made as a result of cost-benefit analysis
Economic and social losses of coastal flooding in the UK
Economic:
An acre of residential land in the UK has a value between £300,000 (north) to £1 million (south)
Average damages in the UK from coastal flooding is £120 million a year
An acre of farmland costs between £12,000 - £50,000
35 power stations, 22 clean water facilities and 91 sewage treatment works in the UK have been identified as at risk from coastal flooding
Social:
Up to 200,000 properties will be at risk by 2050 in the UK
Income for farmers lost due to loss of livestock and flooding of crops
Loss of jobs when businesses are affected
In 2007 in the UK, it was estimated that £48 billion worth of land with amenity value was at risk from coastal flooding before 2050
A study in 2011 suggested that how many people could be displaced by sea level rise by 2100?
More recent studies suggest that has increased to how many more million people?
187m
Increased to 630m
