Regeneration Revision Flashcards
(112 cards)
1
Q
What is the Clarke Fisher model?
A
It shows the changes in the 4 economic activity sectors over time
Pre-industrial - The majority of the population works in the primary sector with only a small percentage of people employed in the secondary sector
Industrial - The proportion of employees in the primary sector declines due to the mechanisation of farming, and as land is taken up by manufacturing, the secondary employment increases
Post-industrial - There is a decrease in amount of secondary jobs due to the movement of factories overseas and cheaper imports; this coincides with an increase in employment in the tertiary and quaternary industries due to higher incomes and more demand for holidays, technology etc
2
Q
What are the 4 different sectors of industry?
A
- Primary
- Secondary
- Tertiary
- Quaternary
3
Q
What is the primary sector?
A
The exploitation of raw materials from land, sea or air e.g farming or mining
4
Q
What is the secondary sector?
A
The manufacturing of primary materials into finished products e.g building, food processing or construction
5
Q
What is the tertiary sector?
A
Th providing of services to individuals and other businesses e.g teaching, banking, retailing and nursing
6
Q
What is the quaternary sector?
A
Research and development, including science and IT e.g medical research, digital media development and web page design
7
Q
What does place refer to?
A
A geographical space shaped by individuals and communities over time
8
Q
What does rural-urban continuum mean?
A
the unbroken transition from sparsely populated, remote rural places to densely populated urban places.
9
Q
What is regeneration?
A
Sometimes known as place making. Long term upgrading of existing places either residential retail industrial or commercial in urban or rural areas. (connected with rebranding)
10
Q
What is location quotient?
A
A mappable ratio that helps show specialisation in any data distribution; a figure close to 1 suggests patterns are similar with no particular specialisation.
11
Q
What is gross value added?
A
It measures the contribution to the economy of each producer industry or sector; used in calculating GDP.
12
Q
What is postcode lottery?
A
It refers to the uneven distribution of local personal health and health services nationally EG mental health early diagnosis of cancer and emergency care for the elderly.
13
Q
What is the Glasgow effect?
A
It’s the impacts of poor health linked to deprivation.
14
Q
What is household food insecurity?
A
A household level economic and social condition of limited or uncertain access to adequate food and nutrition.
15
Q
What does parochial mean in a geographical setting?
A
People are less tied to their place of birth than a century ago
16
Q
How do the types of jobs available in an area determine how engaged students are with education?
A
Young people who live in areas with fewer job opportunities are less likely to continue in education - what is the point?
Young people who have parents in professional roles are more likely to continue with education/training and end up in professional roles.
17
Q
What factors might account for the variations in life expectancy/health?
A
The more you earn, the more likely you are to live in good health and have a higher life expectancy = (food/nutrition/healthcare measures EG check ups)
People with higher incomes may be able to afford higher-quality housing (insulated, not damp or overcrowded)
Other factors such as urban vs rural (pollution)
18
Q
What does quality of life measure?
A
Health and living standards
There is a huge variation in the UK
19
Q
What is the UK prosperity index?
A
It uses a variety of quality of life indicators to rank places from best to worst
20
Q
What is quality of life?
A
The level of social and economic well-being experience by individuals, measured by wealth, health, happiness, income and education etc
21
Q
What is gentrification?
A
The process where a poor urban area is changed by wealthier people moving in, improving house and businesses (often displacing current inhabitants in the process).
22
Q
What does perception refer to?
A
An individual’s or group’s ‘picture’ of reality based on their own assessment.
23
Q
What are connections in a geographical setting?
A
Any type of physical,social or online links between places
24
Q
What is studentification?
A
Social, physical and cultural changesas a result ofan influx of studentsoften within privately rented accommodation/areas.
25
What are sink estates?
Housing estates charactarised by high levels of social and economic deprivation and crime EG domestic violence, gang related violence and drug use
26
Why may functional and demographic change of a place occur?
- Location – proximity to large cities and economic zones (opportunity?)
- Environment
- Technology
Connections/access to other places – infrastructure (HS2??)
- Historical development – change over time – industry – consumer trends (EG: online retail)
- Gentrification
- Historic buildings – planning which leads on to:
- Government policies – planning (local and national level)
- Conservation areas
27
How can you measure change?
Land Use change
Employment change
Demographic change
Levels of deprivation
28
What is the index of multiple deprivation?
This is use by central governments to make decisions on how and where to allocate resources; funding and regeneration aid to places and people.
The government tend to target areas which have, for EG – high levels of crime or low GCSE attainment.
29
What can levels of engagement be measured by?
Election turnout (local/national)
Support for local community projects
30
In the 2019 national election, how many eligible voters were not correctly registered?
Approximately 9 million
31
What does regeneration rely on?
Community participation throughout
Organisations/charities - e.g National lottery, supermarket chains (blue coins in Tesco) as well as local and national government need communities to be supportive or the project I bless likely to be successful
32
What are factors affecting levels of engagement?
Age
Length of residence
Levels of deprivation
Gender
Ethnicity
33
How can place identity be flaunted through/by locals?
The terms 'Geordie' 'Scouse' 'Del Boy'
Football team nicknames = Sheffield United known as the 'Blades' because of the city's links with steel, Stoke city are known as the 'Potters' because of ceramics
This may indicate economic specialisms, even if they are now defunct
34
What scheme did the UK government launch in 2014?
It's 'promoting fundamental British values' scheme
Deliverable by all state schools in England, to help counteract threats by fundamentalism and terrorism and to promote a sense of national place, which has become linked to citizenship
35
What is rebranding?
Rebranding is another way to alter public perception of a place to bring about a change of opinion of visitors and bring about improvements and investment.
It is the marketing aspect of regeneration and may include re-imaging.
36
What is re-imaging?
Re-imaging is the process of making a place more attractive or desirable to live in or visit.
37
Why can rural areas struggle with rebranding?
Due to a lack of infrastructure already in place = so campaigns need to be thorough
38
How can rural areas combat their struggles with rebranding?
Literary associations EG: Bronte country..
The wild moors and the village of Haworth where the Brontes grew up.. the possibility to visit locations where literature was inspired.
Outdoor Pursuits: Wild Scotland – Scottish tourism alliance “Nurture your wild side” slogan
Heritage examples include Northumberland – the setting for some of the Harry Potter films.. Beautiful scenery etc may encourage tourism.
Once a place gains notoriety through books/films etc the place aims to cash in on tourists. This may encourage further investment, development and regeneration. Kings Cross, Glenfinnan Viaduct
Being social media savvy may spread the word faster and more effectively now.
1. Thailand – The Beach
2. New Zealand – Lord of the Rings
3. Croatia/Ireland/Iceland – GoT
39
Is rural rebranding straightforward, if so why?
Rural rebranding can be straightforward
EG: farm diversification – making changes to encourage economic growth.
A good example is Teals – on the A303, glamping sites or the Buffalo farm near Stockbridge – a specialised product.
The ‘HUB’ in BroadChalke is a good example too as well as The History Festival.
Food is often a way to generate interest.
40
What are urban examples of rebranding?
Birmingham – Peaky Blinders
Notting Hill – following the film and Paddington!!
Industrial Heritage – buildings repurposed and rebranded as galleries/museums etc.. Portsmouth docks good examples.
Creative Arts and Tourism - EG: Liverpool waterfront.
Glasgow – ‘Scotland with Style’
41
Where can advertising be shown/promoted?
- Social Media/online
- Posters on transport – rail routes to the coast (this might go alongside cheap travel/offers to the coast for EG..)
- TV advertising
- LOGO change
- Brand identity/slogan changes
- Hosting events
- Free ticketed events
42
How can regeneration be a catalyst?
Regeneration isn’t a quick fix to an area’s problems and tend to be a long term measure.
Some events are designed to be a catalyst such as the London Olympic Games or the Commonwealth Games in Manchester.
They attract investment and people and create a legacy of success which helps to tackle more longstanding issues.
43
What are some economic measures commonly used to judge success?
1. Improved employment rates
2. Higher incomes
3. Increased levels of disposable income/reduced poverty rates
44
What are some social measures commonly used to judge success and how are they often measured?
Social measures are often measured by The Index of Multiple Deprivation.
It looks at reductions in inequalities both between areas and within them.
IE. demographic changes such as life expectancy and a fall in health deprivation.
45
What are some environmental measures used to judge success?
1. Improved access to green space
2. Reduced pollution
3. Reduction in abandoned and derelict land.
46
How is the success of regeneration measured/shown?
The success will be measured by showing change over time.
47
What are LSOA's?
Census data are collected in small neighbourhoods, known as Lower Super Output Areas (LSOA).
There are 32, 844 in England.
Data can be aggregated into larger areas, such as districts, counties or boroughs.
48
How many domains of deprivation are there?
7
49
What are the 7 domains of deprivation, which combine to create the Index of Multiple Deprivation (IMD2019)
1. Income
2. Employment
3. Education
4. Health
5. Crime
6. Barriers to housing and services
7. Living environment
Supplementary indicies:
1. Income deprivation affecting children index (IDACI) = 0-15 year olds
2. Income deprivation affecting older people index (IDAOPI) = 60+
50
What are the two ways of measuring success?
1. Absolute
2. Relative
51
What is absolute success?
When the entire community has benefitted.
52
What is relative success?
When only certain groups have benefitted.
53
What is a downside of job focus regeneration?
Outsiders may take new jobs rather than locals
54
What does getting out of the poverty trap depend on?
Getting out of the poverty trap depends in the short-term on household income, but in the longer term on educational attainment and attitudes towards health.
55
How can success involve a strong brand and identity?
They attract investment, boost tourism, and create a positive image, making a place more desirable to live, work, and visit.
The Eden project, Olympic stadium and West Quay are all examples and can help boost local cities economies
56
What is a catalyst?
the method/event that starts a regeneration scheme
57
What is an Area Based Initiative?
Area Based Initiatives: ABIs aim to improve selected people/places within a specific location.
58
What is social progress?
Relates to how an individual and community improve their relative status in society over time.
59
What does social progress aim to do?
1. Reduce inequalities between areas and within them
2. Improvements in social measures of deprivation
3. Demographic changes – improvements in life expectancy and reduction in health deprivation
60
What did the 2020 ONS survey highlight in age-related disparities regarding wellbeing across the UK population?
1. Young people (16–24) report high health satisfaction and strong participation in physical activity, but face social challenges such as unemployment, loneliness, and a weaker sense of community belonging.
2. Adults aged 25–54 are more likely to be employed, but report lower satisfaction with leisure time, reflecting pressures from work and family life.
3. Older adults (75+) experience higher satisfaction with income, leisure, and financial stability, and feel a stronger sense of neighbourhood belonging, but face issues with declining health and lower engagement in cultural activities.
61
How does regeneration tackle living environment measures?
Redesigning run-down neighbourhoods
Pedestrian zones
Lighting and street furniture
Graffiti, litter and noise
62
What are the two subdivisions from the IMD Living environment deprivation domain
1. Indoor = The quality of housing including the structure, facilities, insulation and central heating provision
2. Outdoor = Air quality and number of road traffic accidents
63
What can perception of success be sculpted by?
Media coverage
Personal perceptions and attachments
Personal experiences of change
Gender
Ethnicity
Age
Stance towards development and change
64
What are stakeholder views sculpted by?
Stakeholders have different views on regeneration because they have different expectations, interests, and lived experiences:
Expectations
Stakeholders have different expectations for regeneration in terms of social, economic, and environmental concerns. For example, planners may support regeneration because it could be profitable, while local residents may oppose it because it could lead to gentrification.
Interests
Stakeholders may have a vested interest in a change based on their own personal objectives. For example, property owners may be skeptical about regeneration if they don't believe in cultural heritage.
Lived experiences
Stakeholders' lived experiences of a place can affect their judgment of regeneration. For example, residents may be concerned about the impact of regeneration on the reality and image of their place.
Role
Stakeholders may have different roles, such as local residents, local businesses, national governments, landowners, and farmers.
Stakeholder conflicts can lead to social problems, such as unbalanced benefit distribution, displacement, and social unrest
Each stakeholder will have different viewpoints. Local residents may oppose regeneration because investment may lead to gentrification displacing them from their homes. Conflict may arise between these and planners who are fond of regeneration because it may be profitable for them in the future.
65
What does a places function refer to?
The roles a place plays for its community and surroundings
66
What does Egan's wheel show?
The criteria to evaluate success
67
What are the factors affecting regeneration policies?
Politics of the local area
External factors = global economic recessions and booms
Legacy of past regeneration policies
The degree of 'pump pricing' needed
Quality of the bid to government or private finance to get investment
Location = urban or rural
Legacy of the past: Physical, Social, Economic
68
What are the two factors affecting lived experience and levels of engagement?
Membership = a feeling of belonging, familiarity and being accepted
Influence = a sense of playing a part in a place and hence caring about it
69
Summarise the different regeneration strategies to improve rural and urban locations
Urban Regeneration Strategies:
Economic Renewal
Retail-Led
Tourism/Leisure-Led
Sport-Led
Rebranding/Re-imaging
Infrastructure Development
Cultural Regeneration
Environmental Regeneration
Rural Regeneration Strategies
Public/Private Rural Diversification
Tourism
Rebranding
Infrastructure Development
Farm Diversification
Outdoor Pursuits and Adventure
Cultural Regeneration
70
What is a place shaped by?
- The physical nature of the place
- What its residents do for a living
Connections:
Internal - people, employment, housing, services
External - government policies, globalisation
Changes:
- Locally e.g. counter-urbanisation
- Nationally e.g. government policies
- Globally e.g. climate change, pandemics
The nature of a place affects the type of work on offer and therefore the type of employee required e.g.
- The town of Reading, due to its proximity to London, has a lot of professional people living there
- The industrial town of Middlesbrough, located in North East England, has more manual workers living there
71
Has the UK followed the expected trends in the Clarke-Fisher model?
Yes = 1% primary, 15% secondary, 84% tertiary and quaternary
72
How can employment type be classified?
Jobs can be classified on whether they are:
- Full-time (35+ hours per week) or part-time (less than 35 hours per week)
- Temporary or permanent
- Employed or self-employed
73
What percentage of the population are on 0 hours contracts?
3%
74
What do the top 10% of workers earn?
£62,583 a year (2022)
75
What do the bottom 10% of workers earn?
£19,403 a year (2002)
76
What do jobs in London offer to make up for the higher prices of goods and services?
Jobs offers in London often have the ‘London allowance’ to help make up for the higher prices of goods and service
77
How does quality of life correlate with income levels?
Quality of life closely correlates with income levels as many of the things that contribute to quality of life have to be paid for:
- Goods - house, furniture, food, electrical items
- Services - transport, leisure, utilities
78
What are the different functions a place can have?
Administrative
Commercial
Retail
Industrial
One of these functions may dominate a place, but there is more likely to be a combination of them all
79
What are the reasons for a change in place?
A range of factors cause changes in places including:
Physical factors
Accessibility and connectedness
Historical development
Role of local/national planning
79
Why is an area's function likely to change over time?
A place’s dominant function is also likely to change over time as the economic needs change:
The increased use of online banking and shopping, and click-and-collect (exacerbated by the COVID-19 pandemic) has led to some places losing their retail function, resulting in economic decline
Industrial land in Middlesbrough has declined over the last 50 years due to factory closures in the iron and steel industry
In Reading, the commercial function has grown and several large TNCs have bases there e.g. Microsoft and Intel
80
How can we measure change?
IMD - Index of multiple deprivation
81
What is a key indicator of how economically successful places are?
Population growth or decline
82
What has contributed to deindustrialsation of areas?
Globalisation and TNCs have contributed to deindustrialisation with the global shift in manufacturing to emerging and developing countries
83
What is the cumulative causation model?
Successful places often experience a spiral of growth
Cumulative causation occurs when people move to a successful area to provide services for those already there
This makes the area even more attractive to people and investors
84
What do some places experience after economic restructuring?
Spiral of decline
85
What are examples of high priority areas for regeneration?
Sink Estates
Declining rural settlements
86
What are low priority areas for regeneration?
Gated communities
Commuter villages
87
Areas that need regeneration can be found next to those that do not need it at all
Rich, gated communities can be found right next to 'sink estates' in urban areas, what is an example of this?
The close (gated community) and the Friary (sink estate) in Salisbury
88
Who are the groups least likely to be on the electoral roll and therefore can’t vote?
People living in poverty
Black people
Young people
People living in urban areas
89
What does the NIMBY protest stand for?
Not in my backyard
90
What can lived experience depend on?
Age
Gender
Levels of deprivation
Ethnicity
Length of residence
91
What does marginalisation refer to, and what can it lead to?
Some people (e.g. young people, ethnic minority groups, and the poor) can feel that a place does not represent them, leading to a sense of exclusion and marginalisation
This can result in the clustering of groups e.g.
- High-income, elite professionals cluster together
- Low-income social groups, dominated by low-skilled services jobs, cluster together
92
What are conflicts over regeneration caused by?
A lack of political engagement and representation
Low-income groups are less likely to vote, so politicians direct their interest to richer groups
Regeneration is then imposed on locals by development companies, who have no lived experience of the place
Ethnic tensions - The minority ethnic groups are often displaced through gentrification as the area now attracts younger, wealthier people, which raises house prices
Social inequality - groups with lower incomes might not be able to afford to live in the area once it has been regenerated
A lack of economic opportunity - Local businesses are threatened by regeneration due to increased competition from new companies and a rise in rental costs
93
How can top down approaches reduce community engagement?
The approaches can erase the local character of the area and degrade the sense of place felt by existing residents
Local groups might not benefit from the regeneration scheme
The development company might try to fit regeneration ideas from other areas into that place
94
What are some possible representations that could influence people’s perceptions regarding regeneration?
Newspapers
News reports
Documentaries on TV
YouTube video clips uploaded by individuals
Estate agents
Tourism and local enterprise offices
Local authorities
95
How can the UK Government policies facilitate regeneration?
Infrastructure investments = HS2, maintain economic growth and improve accessibility - lead to positive multiplier effect
96
How does DEFRA aim to achieve environmental stability as part of sustained economic growth?
Developing rural villages in decline
Protecting eroding coastlines
Improving the agricultural industry
97
To encourage economic growth within the UK, national infrastructure investment has been used to improve accessibility and reduce what?
The North-South divide
98
How do governments domestic policies influence regeneration?
Planning laws and restrictions
House building targets
Housing affordability programmes
Granting permissions for ‘fracking’
These domestic planning policies can affect the rate and type of development, which impacts the amount of economic regeneration taking place in urban and rural areas
99
When did onshore shale gas fracking begin in the UK?
In 2008 = The government saw fracking as a national priority for securing energy supplies and increasing economic stability
In 2019, a high court ruling suspended the process of fracking due to the government’s lack of consideration over the climatic impact of fracking
100
Why have the government created open door migration policies?
To influence labour supplies and skills
101
In 2022, UK net migration reached what figure, the highest figure ever recorded according to the Office of National Statistics (ONS)
606,000
102
What are the economic arguments for immigration?
Increased gross domestic product (GDP)
Extra taxes and production
Both well-qualified and lower-skilled immigrants can fill skills shortages
103
What are the negatives of immigration?
Increased pressure on services and housing availability in certain areas
Social issues caused by asylum seekers being housed in hard-to-let properties in already deprived areas, such as estates in Middlesbrough
104
What is an enterprise zone and how many are there across the UK?
Small area of the UK which has been set up for investment and development
May receive:
- Discount on business rates for premises
- Tax relief
- More relaxed planning regulations
- Superfast broadband
- Government support for start-up costs
48 across the UK
105
What are science parks used for and how many in the UK?
Science parks are designated areas created to promote innovation and act as hubs for advances in high technology e.g. pharmaceuticals, cyber-engineering
100 employing about 75,000 people
106
How are Trade Unions and the Chamber of Commerce involved in regeneration?
Chambers of Commerce try to persuade local and national governments to invest in infrastructure, education and skills training
Trade unions work to ensure that employers consider the rights and needs of workers in regeneration plans
107
What different aspects can lead regeneration schemes?
Retail-led
Tourism-led
Leisure and sport-led
Public and private rural diversification
108
How can we assess regeneration in general?
Social e.g. life expectancy, demographics
Economic e.g. income, poverty, employment
Environmental e.g. pollution, derelict land
109
What do you need to consider when measuring the impacts of regeneration?
Timescales - it might take many years to see improvements in educational attainment
The areas being compared - two places directly affected by the regeneration scheme or one regenerated place versus one undeveloped place
Multiple measures - whilst economic indicators might suggest the regeneration is successful, social indicators could show that people have been negatively affected
110
How can Egan's wheel be used to measure change?
It uses 4 variables:
Economic
Social
Demographic changes
Environmental
111
What are the rural areas that cause the most amount of conflict?
National Parks
The Urban-rural fringe
Greenbelts
