Ch.1 Final Part Flashcards by Maria Zepeda

When Amyloid Deposits occur in a single organ, they are misfolded proteins that the body has trouble degrading.

Localized Amyloidosis

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Non-mutated serum, transthyretin deposits in the heart. Non-symptomatic. Occurs overtime. 25% of people have it by the age of 80.

Senile Cardiac amyloidosis

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Mutated transyhyretin causes restrictive cardiomyopathy. 5% of Americans of African descent have this. Ex. FMF

Familial form of Amyloidosis

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Issue where heart cannot contract properly due to all the protein deposits surrounding it.

Cardiomyopathy

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Amylin is derived from what?

Insulin

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Chronic secretion of high amount of insulin leads to amylin deposits in the isle of the pancreas which causes the organ to loose ability to function;therefore no insulin can be produced.

insulin deficient

Type 2 diabetes

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Beta- amyloid derived from APP (amyloid precursor protein) , deposited in brain forming amyloid plaques resulting in what disease?

Alzheimer disease

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The gene for APP is located on what chromosome?

Chromosome 21

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Trisomy 21=

Down syndrome

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Since APP gene is located on chromosome 21, people with trisomy 21 often develop ___ by the age of 40

Alzheimer’s because more expression of APP

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Protein producing cancer, carcinoma of the thyroid were calcitonin overproduction deposits within the tumor.

Medullary Carcinoma

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Cystic fibrosis, Tay-sac, Familial hypercholestorlemia are all examples of what?

Disease causes by misfolded proteins that are degraded leading to their deficiency

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The ccumulation of misfolded proteins in a cell can stress compensatory pathways in the ___ and lead to cell death by apoptosi

Endoplasmic Reticulum

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Retinitis pigmentosa, Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease are examples of what?

Diseases Caused by Misfolded Proteins That Result in ER Stress-Induced Cell Loss

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Each cell has a capacity for ____ . More stressor the more likely you are to overwhelm cells capacity to withstand stress.

Injury

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Neurons have a small capacity to deal with _____ thus highly susceptible to it while skeletal muscles are more resistant (via anaerobic respiration)

Ischemia

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Renal artery atherosclerosis will causes atrophy of some tissues, example of?

Slow, chronic, ischemia

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Renal artery embolus, results in immediate cell injury. Much worse

sudden acute ischemia

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Low oxygen in tissues, results in no final oxygen electron receptor in ox. phos.= less ATP= cellular injury.

Hypoxia

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What happens when there is less/reduced ATP in cells?

Can’t power the Na or Ca+ pumps

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Ischemia compromises what?

The delivery of substrates for glycolysis= non aerobic metabolism or aerobic energy generation.

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Does hypoxia or ischemia causes more rapid and severe tissue injury to the cell?

Ischemia

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-reduced/stopped blood flow
-Low blood oxygen(hypoxemia)
-Blood O2 carrying capacity diminished

3 causes of hypoxia?

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Low partial pressure of oxygen in blood.

Hypoxemia

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Decrease RBC mass. Blood O2 carrying capacity diminished, example of hypoxia.

Anemia

Decreased blood flow to tissues or organs

Ischemia

Physical causes of ischemia?

-Limiting caliber of artery= reduced arterial perfusion atheroscelorsis -Stenosis/spasm

Blocking arteria flow due to backed up or decreased venous drainage (Budd-chiari syndrome/ blocked IVC) results in what?

Results in hypoxia

Shock- generalized hypotension in the entire system which causes poor tissue perfusion results in

Results in hypoxia

Stimulates the synthesis of several proteins that help the cell to survive in the face of low oxygen

hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF) family.

-VEGF= stimulate growth of new vessels and increase blood flow = more oxygen -Other protiens= changes in cell metabolism, stimulation uptake of glucose (from circulation/hydrolysis of glycogen) and glycolysis; **anaerobic glycolysis(produce atp for cells without oxygen)**

Proteins induced by Hypoxia inducible factor family

What tissues can survive loss of oxygen better liver/striated muscles or brain?

Liver/striated tissues

depeletion of ATP and sitting off of the Na pump results in what?

Decreased intracellular pH which causes changes in the activities of many enzymes, increased generation of ROS, and defects in protein synthesis.

What conditions cause hypoventilation (reduce breathing, O2 entering)

Increased PAco2 resulting in decreased PAo2.

what causes a decreased barometric pressure, resulting in reduction of PAo2

High altitude

Hypoventilation, high altitude, diffusion issue, decreased al result in what?

Hypoxemia (low PAo2 in blood)

When PAo2 (pressure of oxygen in the alveoli) is not able to push as much O2 into the blood. This is a ____ issue

Diffusion issue

Diffusion barrier issue of Oxygen when carried btw the alveolar space & blood vessel is thicker. What disease is this?

Interstitial pulmonary fibrosis

When blood bypasses oxygenated lung due to heart circulation defects like R/L shunting or oxygen is unable to reach blood due to ventilation issues.

Ventilation/Perfusion mismatch

Toxins act directly by combining with a critical molecular component or cellular organelle. Ex. Chemo drugs, toxins produced by infectious pathogens.

Direct-acting toxins

toxic chemicals are only active after they have been converted to reactive metabolites, which then act on target cells

Latent toxins

Ex. of hypoxia, CO binds hemoglobin more strongly than oxygen, PAO2 normal but SAo2 decreased. headache, red appearance, death

Carbon monoxide poisoning

Iron in heme is oxidized to Fe3+, CANT bind oxygen-PAO2 normal but SAo2 decreased. *oxidative stress* Cyanosis, chocolate colored blood

Methoglobienmia

How to treat Methoglobienmia?

Methylene blue IV, pushes the reduction of Fe3+ back to Fe2+ (can carry oxygen better!)

refers to an enlargement of cells that results in increase in the size of the organ.

Hypertorphy

increase in the number of cells in an organ that stems from increased proliferation (mitosis), either of differentiated cells or, in some instances, progenitor cells.

Hyperplasia

Cells just increase in size b/c they contain more amount of structural proteins & organelles.

Pure Hypertorphy

Physiologic or pathologic, causes by either an increased functional demand or by growth factor hormone stimulation. gene activation

Hypertropy

Occurs during pregnancy, estrogen stimulated smooth muscle hypertrophy & hyperplasia. Nucleuses become small because the smooth muscle cells expand and become larger.

Physiologic enlargement of the uterus

disorders that increase intracardiac pressures, such as narrowing of the aortic valve (stenosis) . Myocardial cells have persistent workload increase; adapting by enlarging to generate higher contractile force.

Pathologic Hypertrophy

What does a irreversible hypertrophied myocardium look like?

The ventricular walls are thicker

What does reversibly injured hypertrophied myocardium look like?

shows functional compromise without gross or light microscopic changes, or reversible changes like cellular swelling and fatty change.

What does necrosised myocardium look like?

the transmural light area in the posterolateral left ventricle represents an acute myocardial infarction

Ex. of pathological hyperplasia

Endometrial hyperplasia, which can progress to dysplasia and become cancerous.

exemplified by the proliferation of the glandular epithelium of the female breast at puberty and during pregnancy

Hormonal Hyperplasia

which residual tissue grows after removal or loss of part of an organ. Ex. part of liver resected, mitotic division occurs and restores liver cells.

Compensatory hyperplasia

reduced size of an organ or tissue caused by reduction in the size and number of cells

Atrophy

Causes of Atrophy

-Decrease in workload & stress -nerve, blood, nutrients reduced= less cells.

Decrease cell number occurs via ____

Apoptosis

Decrease in cell size occurs via ____ tagging of cellular components for proteasome degredation. Send everything back o blood

Ubiquitin tagging

Shrinking of the brain is a what? and this happens why?

Less use, atrophy

Autophage of cellular components involves generation of _____ vacuoles which are later fused with lysosomes

Autophagic

change in which one adult cell type is replaced by another adult cell type.

Metaplasia

Metaplasia is arrises from reprogramming of _____ cell to differentiate along a new pathway rather than a phenotypic change of differentiated cells

Stem cell

change in the respiratory epithelium (due to prolonged smoking). Normal relatively delicate ciliated columnar epithelial cells of the trachea and bronchi -> replaced by tough stratified squamous epithelial cells= which are better suited to withstand the noxious chemicals in cigarette smoke.

Epithelium Metaplasia

normal stratified squamous epithelium of the lower esophagus may undergo metaplastic transformation to gastric or intestinal-type columnar epithelium. Example of what?

Metaplasia

The influences that induce metaplastic change, if persistent, predispose to malignant transformation of the epithelium=

cancer

Metaplasia is ___ if stress is resolved in the case of gastric reflux cel changes if pt. takes antacids

Reversible

______ deficiency is linked to metaplasia where squamous epithelium of conjunctiva changes to stratified dekeritanized epithelium= what disease?

Vitamin A deficiency Keratomalacia

_____ connective tissue under go metaplasia

mesenchymal

When muscle tissue undergo metaplasia into bone (ossification)

Myositis ossificans

Discord in cell growth, no cohesion, pre-cancerous cell proliferation with poor structure.

Dysplasia

dysplasia that is a precursor to cervical cancer

Cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN) (Development of abnormal cells in cervix)

Dysplasia often arrises from longstanding pathologic _____(endometrial ____) or ______ (batter esophagus)

Hyperplasia; endometiral of Metaplasia

Occurs in the mouth, results of smoking, underside of tongue, irregular looking tissue. *conduct biopsy*

Mucosal dysplasia

Failure of cell production during embryogenesis *embryological*

Aplasia

Decrease in cell production during embryogenesis *resulting in smaller than usual organ or tissue size*

Hypoplasia

Unilateral renal angigenisis (only 1 kidney)

Ex. of aplasia

Decrease in enamel cell production. Teeth look chalky white.

Enamel hypoplasia

abnormal accumulation of triglycerides within parenchymal cells.

Fatty Change (Steatosis)

phagocytic cells may become overloaded with lipids (triglycerides, cholesterol, and cholesteryl esters) in several pathologic processes characterized by increased intake or decreased catabolism of lipids

Cholesterol and Cholesteryl Esters.

visible _____ accumulations are less common than lipid accumulations; they may occur because of increased uptake or increased synthesis

Proteins

associated with abnormalities in the metabolism of either glucose or glycogen.

glycogen

typically indigestible pigments, such as carbon, lipofuscin (breakdown product of lipid peroxidation), or hemosiderin (usually due to iron overload

Pigments

Results from combination of multiple and progressive cellular alterations, Accumulation of DNA damage and mutations, Exacerbated by chronic diseases, especially those associated with prolonged inflammation, and by stress; slowed down by calorie restriction and exercise **programed changes with genetic influences**

Cellular Aging

Carbon, Lipofusion, melanin, hemosiderin

All examples of pigments that can accumulate in the cell.